Aviation meteorology

Course 2. Air pressure

Content
• Introduction
• Atmospheric Pressure
• Pressure Definitions
• Units and instrumentation
• Variations of Pressure
• Types of Pressure: QFE, QNH, QFF
• Analysis Charts

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 Introduction and definition
• “The study of atmospheric pressure may be said to form
the foundations of the science of meteorology.” (The
Handbook of Aviation Meteorology)
• Usually, low pressure is associated to “bad weather” and
high pressure to “fine weather”.
• Atmospheric pressure is the force per unit area exerted by
the atmosphere on any surface in contact with it.
• If pressure is considered as the weight of a column of air of
unit cross-sectional area above a surface, then it can be
seen from the diagram that the pressure (weight of the
column above) at the upper surface will be less than that
at the lower surface  atmospheric pressure will
decrease with an increase in height.
• Ethimology (gr.): báros (weight) şi métron (to measure)
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Units of Measurement
• Pascal (N/sqm); for simplicity air pressure is expressed in hectopascals (hPa);
• the earlier system of measurement was millibars (mb); in some countries
millibars are still used;
• mmHg are still in use and they are related to the height of a column of
mercury in a barometer in millimetres (or inches);
• Torr is equivalent to mmHg;
1hPa = 1 mb
1 mmHg = 1 torr
1hPa(mb) = 4/3 mmHg(torr)
1 mmHg(torr) = 3/4 hPa(mb)
• mean sea level pressure in the ISA is 1013.25 hPa or 760 mmHg or 29.92
inches Hg.
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 Instruments of Measurement
• Mercury Barometer is the basic instrument used for the
measurement of atmospheric pressure; the atmospheric pressure is
measured by the height of a column of mercury, and this height can
be read in terms of any of the units shown above. A Mercury Barometer
• Aneroid Barometer is a more compact means of measuring
atmospheric pressure and it consists of partially evacuated capsules,
which respond to changes in pressure by expanding and contracting,
and a system of levers; these changes of pressure are indicated by a
pointer moving over a scale.
• The Barograph allow a continuous record of pressure changes; a An Aneroid Barometer
paper covered rotating drum is substituted for the scale and the
instrument then becomes a barograph; it is used to measure what is
known as pressure tendency, the rise and fall of pressure over a
period of time since pressure tendency is an important forecasting
tool.
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A Barograph
 Instruments of Measurement
Aneroid Barometer
• Created by Lucien Vidie 1844
• Acuracy: 0.1 hPa

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 Instruments of Measurement

The Barograph - Created by Alexander

Cumming 1760

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 Variation of Pressure
Vertical variation
• With an increase in height, the weight of air overlying the surface will
reduce.
ISA
• The rate of change of pressure with height (the barometric lapse rate) 27 feet at MSL
reduces as altitude increase, or the height change per hPa increases as 50 feet at 20 000 ft
altitude increases; 100 feet at 40 000 ft
• temperature has a dramatic effect on the pressure change with height (i.e.
the pressure lapse rate):
• warm air will cause pressure to fall slowly with height, i.e. decreasing the pressure
lapse rate,
• cold air will cause pressure to fall rapidly with height, i.e. increasing the pressure
lapse rate.
• the pressure at any given height is expected to be higher over warm air
and lower over cold air;
• Shown below is how temperature affects the height difference with a 1
hPa change in pressure: H = 96T/P II. PRESIUNEA ATMOSFERICĂ
 Variation of Pressure
Diurnal Variation
• There is a change in pressure during the day
which although small (about 1 hPa in temperate
latitudes, can be as much as 3 hPa in the tropics)
would need to be taken into account when
considering pressure tendency as an indication of
changing weather.
• The variation is difficult to explain, but is probably
due to a natural oscillation of the atmosphere
having a period of about 12 hours, this oscillation
being maintained by the 24 hour variation of
temperature.
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 Types of Pressure: QFE, QNH, QFF
• QFE - the atmospheric pressure measured at the aerodrome reference
point; with QFE set on the altimeter the altimeter will read zero feet
when the aircraft is on the aerodrome.

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 Types of Pressure: QFE, QNH, QFF
• QNH - is the barometric pressure at the airfield (QFE), converted to mean
sea level (MSL) using the ISA temperature at the airfield and the ISA
pressure lapse rate.
• This will provide a pressure which does not account for any temperature
deviation away from ISA.
• The correction to be made to the surface pressure will depend solely
upon the height of the airfield AMSL.
• QNH is always a whole number without any decimal places and is always
rounded down.
• When on the aerodrome with QNH set the altimeter will read
aerodrome elevation.
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Types of Pressure: QFE, QNH, QFF
• QFF – is QFE converted to mean sea level using the actual temperature.
• Because temperature affects the change of pressure over height QNH is not a true
mean sea level pressure (unless ISA conditions exist).
• The forecaster needs to know the true mean sea level pressure in order to
construct accurate analysis charts and to help with the forecasting of future
changes.
• The meteorological offices, therefore, convert QFE to MSL using the actual
temperature and assuming isothermal conditions between the aerodrome and
MSL.
• We can determine that at temperatures below ISA we have a relatively small
height change per 1 hPa change in pressure and a relatively large change at
temperatures above ISA.
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 Types of Pressure: QFE, QNH, QFF
Example 1:
What is the relationship between QFF and QNH at Oxford (270 ft AMSL)
if the QNH is 1020 hPa and the temperature ISA +10°?

The QNH is calculated using the ISA temperature and the QFF using the actual temperature. Since the actual
temperature is warmer than ISA the change in pressure over 270 ft will be greater in the ISA than in the actual
conditions. As we are above MSL this means that the QNH will be greater than the QFF.
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 Types of Pressure: QFE, QNH, QFF
Example 2:
What is the relationship between QFF and QNH at an aerodrome 69 m
below MSL if the QNH is 1005 hPa and the temperature is ISA-10°?

This time the change in pressure is greater for the calculation of QFF than for the QNH. As we
are reducing pressure this time it means the QNH will once again be greater than the QFF.
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 Types of Pressure: QFE, QNH, QFF
The same sign for elevation and ISA deviation (+,+ or -,-) (AMSL and warmer
than ISA or below mean sea level and colder than ISA)  QNH > QFF.
Different sign for elevation and ISA deviation (+,- or -,+)  QFF > QNH.

Stations AT MSL, Regardless of temperature

QNH = QFF (=QFE)

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 Analysis Charts
• Isobars on analysis charts are corrected
mean sea level pressures (QFF) and are
drawn at a spacing which is dependent on
the scale of the chart.
• On larger area charts the spacing may be
expanded to 4 or more hectopascals but
this will be stated on the chart.

Isobars on an Analysis Chart

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• Pressure altitude within the atmosphere is the altitude in the
International Standard Atmosphere with the same pressure as the part
of the atmosphere in question.
• Pressure altitude (PA) = Elevation + 30 x (1013 - QNH)
For example if the airfield elevation is 1000 ft and the QNH is 993 hPa then
PA = 1000 + 30 x (1013 - 993)
= 1000 + 30 x 20 = 1000 + 600 = 1600 feet

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 • The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration has
published the following formula for converting directly from
pressure in millibars to altitude in feet:

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