Thunderstorms

PhD. Prof. Adina-Eliza Croitoru

 Summary
• Conditions
• Air Mass Type Thunderstorms
• Frontal Type Thunderstorms
• Thunderstorm Development (Single Cell)
• Movement of Thunderstorms
• Alignment
• Forecasting
• Supercell Thunderstorms (Severe Local Storms)
• Avoidance
• Recommended Thunderstorm Avoidance Ranges Using Airborne Radar
• Radar
• Summary of Thunderstorm Hazard
• The Fujita Scale
 Conditions
Thunderstorms (TS) occur in well developed cumulonimbus (Cb) cloud, though not all
Cbs produce thunderstorms. They are most likely to occur when there is:
• A lapse rate greater than the SALR through a layer at least 10 000’ thick and extending
above the freezing level.
• Sufficient water vapour to form and maintain the cloud.
• Trigger* action to produce early saturation, thus enhancing instability.

Thunderstorms are classified as:

• Air mass type (more common in summer time).
• Frontal type (more common in winter time).

*The so-called triggers or lifting forces are: Convection, Orographic uplift, Convergence, Frontal uplift
Air Mass Type Thunderstorms
They are:
• isolated - all triggers except frontal.
• most frequent over land in summer.
• usually formed by day, clear by night.
• formed in cols or weak lows.

Note: thunderstorms formed by advection can occur day or night, over

land or sea or at any time of the year.
Frontal Type Thunderstorms
Frontal thunderstorms are:
• most frequent in winter.
• formed over land or sea, day or night.
• usually formed in a line at a cold front or occlusion.
• found in active depressions or troughs.
• often accompanied by a squall line.
• the fastest moving.
 Thunderstorm Development (Single Cell)

Initial stage.
• Several small Cu combine to form a large Cu
cell about 5 NM across.
• There are strong upcurrents of 1000 to 2000
fpm (exceptionally 6000 fpm).
• Air from the sides and below is drawn in to
replace the lifted air, thus causing turbulence.
• The initial stage lasts about 15 to 20 minutes.

The building stage of a thunderstorm

 Thunderstorm Development (Single Cell)
Mature stage.
• When precipitation occurs, the storm has
reached the mature stage.
• The rain or hail will cause strong down currents
of up to 2400 fpm and will also bring cold air to
lower levels.
• These down drafts will warm initially at the SALR
causing the air to warm very slowly, thereby
staying colder than the surrounding air causing
it to sink faster.
• Another factor aiding these down drafts is that
some of the rain will evaporate which will The mature stage of thunderstorm development
absorb latent heat from the air making it even
colder and more dense. The intensity of this can
lead to the formation of the GUST FRONT.
 Thunderstorm Development (Single Cell)
• Up currents remain strong and can be up to 10 000 fpm. Tops may rise at 5000 fpm or
more. There can be moderate to severe turbulence in, under, over and all around the
cloud.
• At the bottom leading edge of the storm there can be a roll of Sc and a strong gust front
can be experienced up to 13 to 17 NM (24 to 32 km) ahead of the storm and be up to
6000 feet in depth. Below the cloud a squall and associated windshear can be expected.
• A characteristic of the mature stage is the GUST FRONT in advance of the storm
produced by the force of the descending air.
• Downbursts (microbursts or macrobursts) may occur at this stage.
• Rising and falling water droplets will produce a considerable build-up of static
electricity, usually of positive charge at the top of the cloud and negative at the bottom.
The build-ups eventually lead to lightning discharge and thunder.
• The mature stage lasts for a further 15 to 20 min.
Thunderstorm Development (Single Cell)
 Thunderstorm Development (Single Cell)
Dissipating stage.
• At this stage there is precipitation, which is heavy,
and extreme turbulence.
• Thunder and lightning may possibly occur at this
stage. The cloud extends to the tropopause,
where it is spread out by the upper wind to form
an anvil. At these levels the cloud thins to form Ci.
• Large variations in static charge in and around the
cloud cause discharge in the form of lightning
which can appear in the cloud, from the cloud to
the ground, or from the cloud to the air alongside.
• The dissipating stage lasts for a further 1 1/2 to 2
1/2 hours.
 Movement of Thunderstorms and
Alignment

• Single cell thunderstorms usually move in the

direction of the 10,000 ft (700 hPa) wind,
though large storms and newly developed ones
may differ from this.
• Thunderstorm squall lines may occur at and
some miles ahead of an active cold front.

Squall line
Forecasting
• Forecasting the occurrence of thunderstorms will be largely a matter
of assembling the conditions necessary for the formation and the
triggers. A combination of these two groups will indicate the
probability of thunderstorms. Satellite photography and computer
modelling are used to predict this occurrence.
 Forecasting Supercell Thunderstorms
(Severe Local Storms)
Initial Stage
• Conditions necessary to initiate
these thunderstorms are:
• Great depth of instability
• Strong vertical wind shear
• Stable layer between warm
(lower) and cool (upper) air
which is eventually broken down
by insolation. Conditions for supercell thunderstorm
 Forecasting Supercell Thunderstorms
(Severe Local Storms)
Mature Stage
• Characteristics of the mature stage are:
• Very strong up and downdraughts produced in the one large (super) cell give rise to
violent weather and even tornadoes (an average of 33 tornadoes per year have
occurred in Britain over recent years reminding us that they are not a phenomena
restricted to the USA.)
• The mature stage may last several hours.
Movement
• In the Northern Hemisphere movement is usually about 20° to the right of the
18,000 ft (500 hPa).
Location
• Supercell thunderstorms are more common over continental land masses than over
maritime areas. Thunderstorms over the mid-west states of the USA producing
tornadoes are good examples.
Avoidance
The CAA has produced recommended avoidance distances when using
weather radar.
It should be noted that the significance of a radar return of given
intensity usually increases with altitude. The principle underlying use of
airborne weather radar is that strong up currents (which will support
strong turbulence) will support large water droplets, which will show a
stronger radar return.
The next diagram shows a display that can be found on a typical
/generic EFIS display.
Avoidance

Cb cloud signal
and thunderstorm

Typical Weather Mode Display

Radar
• Airborne Weather Radar (CCWR) is Plan Position Indicator
(PPI) radar, but ground radar, though mostly PPI, may also
use RHI (range-height indicator).
• As a general rule, the brighter the radar color, the more
severe the weather associated with it. Because of this,
yellows, oranges, and reds make severe storms easy to
detect at a glance.
• In the same way that radar colors make it easy to spot an
existing storm, shapes make it easy to classify a storm into
its severity type. Some of the most recognizable
thunderstorm types are shown here as they appear on
reflectivity radar images.
• A Stormscope is a highly sophisticated system that detects,
locates and maps areas of electrical discharge activity
contained within thunderstorms permitting avoidance of
the associated hazards.
Thunderstorms on radar
• The term "single cell" is commonly
used to describe an individual spot
of thunderstorm activity. However, it
more accurately describes a
thunderstorm that goes through its
life cycle only once.
• Most single cells are non-severe, but
if conditions are unstable enough,
these storms can produce periods of
brief severe weather. Such storms
are called "pulse thunderstorms."
 Thunderstorm on radar
Multicell thunderstorms appear as clusters of
at least 2-4 single cells moving together as one
group. They often evolve from merging pulse
thunderstorms, and are the most common
thunderstorm type.

If watched on a radar loop, the number of

storms within a multicell group grows
exponentially; this is because each cell interacts
with its neighbor cell, which in turn grows new
cells. This process repeats fairly rapidly (about
every 5-15 minutes). Source image: NOAA
 Thunderstorm on radar

• When grouped in a line, multicell

thunderstorms are referred to as
squall lines.
• Squall lines stretch over a hundred
miles in length. On radar, they can
appear as a single continuous line,
or as a segmented line of storms.
Summary of Thunderstorm Hazards

Thunderstorm Hazards
 Summary of Thunderstorm Hazards

Turbulence:
• It can be violent both within cloud and at their sides.
• Below the cloud, turbulence can be dangerous during take-off and
landing and there can be wind shear.
• It is possible for a pilot to overstress the airframe in these conditions.
• Loose articles being thrown about inside the aircraft cabin can injure
passengers.
• Pressure instruments can be in error due to lag.
Summary of Thunderstorm Hazards
Hail:
• It can be met at any height in the cloud, also below the cloud and
below the anvil.
• Severe skin damage to the airframe can occur when the hail is large.
• Damaging hail can occur up to a height of 45 000 feet.
Summary of Thunderstorm Hazards
Icing:
• This can occur at all heights in the cloud where the temperature is
between 0°C and -45°C. Heavy concentrations of droplets and large
droplet size result in severe clear icing.
• Carburettor icing can occur at temperatures between -10°C and +30°C
and it can be particularly severe between -2°C and +15°C.
Summary of Thunderstorm Hazards
Lightning and the main effects of a lightning strike:
• is most likely to occur within about 5000 ft of the freezing level;
• temperature between +10°C and -10°C;
• temporary blindness of the pilots;
• minor airframe damage;
• magnetic compasses may be seriously affected (errors of 10s of
degrees have been recorded) and their information should be used
with caution until they can be checked;
• disruption to electrical equipment.
 Summary of Thunderstorm Hazards
Static:
• This causes interference on radio equipment in the LF, MF, HF and VHF
frequencies.
• St Elmo’s fire can be caused by static and it results in purple rings of light around
the nose, wing tips and propellers.
• This is not a hazard, but it indicates that the air is electrically charged and
lightning is probable.
Pressure variations:
• Local pressure variations covering only a very small region, in or close to, a storm
can occur causing QFE/QNH to be in error, so that altimeter readings can be
inaccurate by as much as ±1000’ at all heights.
• These, together with gust effects, can cause height errors at low level which can
be dangerous.
 Summary of Thunderstorm Hazards
Microbursts:
• These are down currents in the cloud which also move outwards by reaction from
the ground, having speeds considerably in excess of 1000 feet per minute
downwards (up to 6000 fpm) and 50 kt horizontally.
• The windshear (headwind to tailwind) may be between 50 & 90 kt.
• They are largely caused by descending raindrops which cool the surrounding air by
evaporation, the higher density accelerating the downdraught still further.
• They are concentrated in a burst which is up to 4 km in horizontal length and have a
lifetime of less than 5 minutes. (A macroburst is a similar event but over a bigger
area.)
• Microbursts are most likely to occur in summer air mass thunderstorms in low
latitude regions where surface conditions are dry. They cause extreme turbulence
and severe windshear conditions.
• A warning sign is virga, which is streaks of precipitation from below the cloud which
do not reach the ground.
 Summary of Thunderstorm Hazards
Water ingestion:
• If updraught speed approaches or exceeds the terminal velocity of the falling
raindrops, the resulting high concentrations of water can exceed the design limits for
water ingestion in some turbine engines. The result can be engine flame-out and/or
engine structural failure.
• Water ingestion may also affect pitot heads, even though heaters have been
switched on.
Tornadoes:
• Tornadoes are exclusively associated with CB and large CU clouds.
• They usually occur as a result of vertical windshear with warm moist air at low
altitude and cool dry air coming from a different direction at high altitude.
• They are very powerful whirlwinds with small horizontal extent and very low
pressure in the centre.
Summary of Thunderstorm Hazards
• The highest incidence is in the southern states of the USA (tornado alley) in the
spring and early summer when very warm air from the Gulf of Mexico, moving
north, meets relatively cold air coming from the northwest. This gives massive
instability and the windshear required.
• These tornadoes may have rotational speeds in excess of 200 kt (~100 mps or
360kmph) and diameters up to 1 km.
• Fortunately in Europe we do not have such volatile conditions.
• Typically the maximum diameter of a tornado will be 100 to 150 m, but most are
considerably smaller than this.
• They are most likely to be associated with air mass thunderstorms in the summer
months and usually occur in the afternoon. When they occur over the sea they
appear as water spouts
 Summary of Thunderstorm Hazards

‘A violent whirl, generally cyclonic in sense,

averaging about 100 m in diameter and with
an intense vertical current at the centre,
capable of lifting heavy objects into the
air.’(Meteorological Glossary).
North American Tornado.
• The synoptic situations giving rise to
tornadoes in the USA are as shown.
Synoptic situation favouring tornadoes
Summary of Thunderstorm Hazards
• The tornadoes will occur when cold
dry air from the northwest meets
warm moist air from the Gulf of
Mexico over the prairies of central
USA in spring and early summer.
80% of tornadoes occur between
1400 and 2200 with peak incidence
at 1700.
• The precise means of formation of
the ‘twister’ is open to considerable
conjecture, but computer modelling
and the use of Doppler radars is
making prediction more certain.
Possible causes of tornado formation
Summary of Thunderstorm
Hazards
• Tornadoes are invariably associated with Cb clouds and in some
cases the rotation extends to the top of the storm.
• Destructive power of tornadoes lies in the localized reduction in
pressure (20 to 200 hPa) leading to structures exploding and the very
high (up to 300 kt) wind speeds in the vortex. Tornadoes usually last Appearance of tornadoes
a matter of minutes, some occasionally last a few hours and move at
speeds up to 40 kt.
• Increasing use of Doppler radars which will also measure particle
speeds within the vortex is making local tornado warnings more
reliable, but still not more than 30 min ahead. Tornadoes develop a
typical ‘hook’ pattern on the radar screen.
• Within Europe tornadoes are much weaker systems whose maximum
diameter is of the order of 100 m - 150 m, but usually much smaller.
Radar ‘signature’ of a tornado
 Summary of Thunderstorm Hazards
• West African Tornado
West African tornadoes are associated with the passage of the ITCZ
through countries bordering the Gulf of Guinea. They are
thunderstorm squall lines which form in a line north-south and move
from east to west between March and November and are most
common from March to May and October to November.
Summary of Thunderstorm Hazards
The Fujita Scale
• Dr. Ted Fujita of the University of Chicago has devised a scale based
on the damage caused by the tornadoes.
• the scale is based on the observed damage so different construction
standards may result in erroneous assessment of speed.
Summary of Thunderstorm Hazards.
The Fujita Scale
Treapta Pagubele
F0 Light damage. Some damage to chimneys; branches broken off trees; shallow-rooted trees
pushed over; sign boards damaged.
F1 Moderate damage. Peels surface off roofs; mobile homes pushed off foundations or overturned;
moving autos blown off roads.
F2 Considerable damage. Roofs torn off frame houses; mobile homes demolished; boxcars
overturned; large trees snapped or uprooted; light-object missiles generated; cars lifted off
ground.
F3 Severe damage. Roofs and some walls torn off well-constructed houses; trains overturned; most
trees in forest uprooted; heavy cars lifted off the ground and thrown.
F4 Devastating damage. Well-constructed houses leveled; structures with weak foundations blown
away some distance; cars thrown and large missiles generated.
F5 Incredible damage. Strong frame houses leveled off foundations and swept away; automobile-
sized missiles fly through the air in excess of 100 meters (109 yds); trees debarked; incredible
phenomena will occur.
Summary of Thunderstorm Hazards

Tornada Drajna-Dragalina, Jud. Calarasi (30.04.2019)

Sursa: https://www.libertatea.ro/stiri/tornada-din-calarasi-a-ajuns-in-presa-internationala-2620445
 Tornadoes in Romania
• https://
www.digi24.ro/stiri/actualitate/evenimente/video-imagini-apocaliptice-cu-o-t
ornada-uriasa-formata-in-zona-localitatii-drajna-1123442
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z7pwFVeWsg4
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6gJdsV67O-E
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qP8-TfPrTw8
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TIu1Ez4UqCg
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5UdMLht2BRU
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7qqqfJbVoT4
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-OqZXMWuH2M (Gabi Bancila)
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wlirNnYC8xs (Timisoara, 17.09.2017)