Hydraulics & Hydrology (Cve 320) 1

CVE 320
04/15/2024 Prepared by AD Mohammed 1

Urban Hydrology
Urban Hydrology deals with the specific aspects

of the hydrological cycle in urban and industrial
settings.
This includes all natural water flows as well as

the consideration of precipitation, storm water,
groundwater, rivers and lakes, and also the
infrastructure and systems for water supply and
sanitation in a city.
• Hydrology
Hydrology deals with the waters of the earth, their
distribution and circulation, their physical and
chemical properties, and their interaction with the
environment, including interaction with living things
and, in particular, human beings.
• Engineering Hydrology
Engineering hydrology includes those segments of
the field pertinent to design and operation of
engineering projects for the control and use of
water.
Practical Applications of Hydrology
• Design and operation of hydraulic structures
• Water supply
• Wastewater treatment and disposal
• Irrigation and drainage
• Hydropower generation
• Flood control
• Navigation
• Erosion and sediment control
• Salinity control
• Recreational use of water
• Fish and wildlife protection

Hydrologic cycle (Water cycle)
• The hydrologic cycle is a continuous process by which
water is transported from the oceans to the atmosphere to
the land and back to the sea. Water on earth exists in a
space called the hydrosphere which extends about 15 km
up into the atmosphere and about 1 km down into the
lithosphere, the crust of the earth. Water circulates in the
hydrosphere through the maze of paths constituting the
hydrologic cycle.

Water Cycle
The physical processes involved in hydrologic cycle are
 Evaporation
 Condensation
 Sublimation
 Precipitation
 Transpiration,
 Interception,
 Infiltration,
 Percolation and
 The runoff
Physical Processes in hydrologic cycle cont.
Evaporation
• Water evaporates from the oceans and the land surface due to the
heat energy provided by the solar radiation to become part of the
atmosphere.
Evapotranspiration
• Evaporation from the land surface is accompanied by transpiration
by plants. Transpiration is the evaporation of water from aerial parts
and of plants, especially leaves but also stems, flowers and fruits.
Transpiration is a side effect of the plant needing to open its stomata
in order to obtain carbon dioxide gas from the air for photosynthesis.
Precipitation
• Water vapor is transported and lifted in the atmosphere until it
condenses and precipitates on the land or the oceans as rain, snow,
hail, sleet etc. Some precipitation falls as snow and can accumulate
as ice caps and glaciers, which can store frozen water for thousands
of04/15/2024
years. Prepared by AD Mohammed 8
 Interception by vegetation and depression storage
A part of the precipitated water may be intercepted by vegetation or
temporarily retained in the soil in surface depressions (depression
storage) near where it falls and is ultimately returned to the
atmosphere by evaporation and transpiration by plants.
Infiltration and percolation
A portion of the water that reaches the ground enters the earth’s
surface through infiltration. Some part of it then penetrates further
into the ground to reach the ground water table (percolation).
Subsurface flow and base flow
A part of the infiltrated water flows laterally through the unsaturated
soil (subsurface flow). Lateral movement of groundwater in the
saturated zone is known as base flow. Some groundwater stays close
to the land surface and can seep back into surface-water bodies (e.g.
lakes, rivers etc.) and the ocean. Some ground water finds openings
in the land surface and emerges as freshwater springs.
Surface runoff
A portion of the precipitated water flows over the soil
surface (surface runoff). Initially it is a thin layer of
sheet flow known as overland flow. Ultimately it
reaches minor channels (gullies, rivulets etc.), flows
to major streams and rivers, and finally reaches an
ocean. Sometimes, surface runoff flows into closed
water bodies (i.e. lakes).
Snowmelt
Snow packs in warmer climates often melt when
spring arrives, and the melted water flows overland
as snowmelt
Specific human activities that have an impact on Hydrology
1. Forestation and deforestation
2. Grazing and agriculture
3. Urbanisation

Precipitation
Precipitation
Different Forms of Precipitation:
1. Rain
• Light Rain
• Moderate Rain
• Heavy Rain
2. Snow
3. Sleet
4. Hail
5. Drizzle
6. Snow Grain
7. Ice Crystals
Rain Gauge and Types of Rain Gauges
A rain gauge is a meteorological instrument used

to measure the liquid precipitating in a given
amount of time per unit area. It is also known
as an udometer, pluviometer, or
ombrometer.
Types of Rain Gauges

• Non-Recording Type Rain Gauge
• Recording Type Rain Gauges

FIG. 2: Non-Recording Type Rain Gauge

Recording Type Rain Gauges
(I) Weighing bucket type
(II) Tipping bucket type
(III) Floating or natural syphon type rain gauge

FIG. 3: Weighing bucket type

FIG. 4: Tipping bucket type

FIG. 5: Floating or natural Syphon type rain gauge

Advantages of Recording type rain fall
over non Recording type rain gauge:
• Rain fall is recorded automatically and hence
no attender is necessary.
• By using automatic rain gauge records the
intensity of rain fall, where as in the case of
non automatic rainfall rain gauges, only rain
fall depth is measured.
• Rain fall is recorded automatically, that’s why
it can be placed even inaccessible points also.
• Human errors are avoided.
Disadvantages of Recording type rain fall over non Recording type rain gauge:
• It is costly.
• Fault may be developed in electric and

mechanical mechanism for recording the
readings.

WATERSHED
Watershed (also called drainage basin or catchment) is an isolated area with a well
demarcated boundary line, draining the rainwater to a single outlet.
Also, there is a network of stream system to drain the rain water. The stream
network is also called drainage system of watershed.
FIG. 6: View of watershed

WATERSHED Cont.
Watershed Component
The followings are the major components of the
watershed,
1. Watershed boundary,
2. Stream network,
3. Watershed soils/land ,and
4. Land use system.

Rainfall
Rain gauge Installation/Site Selection For Rain Gauge
There are few important points to follow for installation of
raingauge station in the area.
1. The ground surface must be level and firm. The places such
as the building roof, sloppy surface, and terrace wall should
be avoided.
2. In hilly areas the valley and hill top should not be selected
for installation of the raingauge.
3. The site should be representative of the area or watershed.
4. Wind affected site should be avoided.
5. The distance between rain gauge and nearest object
should be at least twice the height of the object
Rainfall Cont.
Rain gauge Installation Cont.
6. Site should be open from all the sides.
7. In forest area the raingauge should be instated at
the distance twice the height of tallest tree from
the forest plantation. Also the gauge’s upper point
should make an angle ranging from 20 to 30
degree from the upper point of the raingauge.
8. The receiver‘s height from the ground surface
should be around 75cm.
9. The position of raingauge must be vertical.
Rainfall Cont
Rain gauge Distribution
The rain gauge distribution in watershed for measurement of rainfall,
in accurate way is very important.
The topography and extent of area of watershed decide the number of
rain gauge stations to be there.
Rain gauge stations as per world metrological organisation (WMO)
As per WMO
1. Flat regions of temperate mediterrian and tropical regions
Ideal -600 to 900 sq km per raingauge
Acceptable - 900 to 3000 sq km per raingauge
2. For mountainous regions of temperate, mediterrian and tropical
regions
Ideal - 100 to 250 sq km per raingauge
Acceptable - 250 to 1000 sq km per raingauge
3. In arid and polar zones –Prepared
04/15/2024
1500 to 10,000 sq km per raingauge 25
by AD Mohammed
Rainfall Cont.
Example (1)- In watershed the tipping bucket type rain gauge
is installed for taking measurement. Determine the depth of
rainfall, if rainfall duration is 2.30 hour.
Solution- The following standards are involved with the tipping

bucket type rain gauge:
1. For single tipping, the time involvement = 6 to 7 seconds
2. Capacity of one compartment is = 0.25mm.
As per above, total number of tipping = (2.30*3600)/6=1380
Therefore, depth of rainfall = 1380*0.25 = 345mm ans.

Rainfall Cont.
Example (2)- In a watershed of mountainous region of temperate zone
determine the number of ideal and acceptable rain gauge stations, if
area of watershed is 1500sqkm.
Solution- As per WMO, the distribution of rain gauge station in

mountainous watershed of temperate regions is as per below:
Ideal- 1 station/100 - 250sqkm; and acceptable- 250 - 1000sqkm.
Accordingly, the number of rain gauge stations would be as below:
Ideal- 1500/200 = 7.5 = 8.0 (Assuming 1station/200sqkm)
Acceptable- 1500/750 = 2.0 (Assuming 1 station/750sqkm)

Rainfall Cont.
Raingauge Adequacy
Where, N = adequate No. of raingauge stations

CV = Coefficient of variations in percent
Ԑ = percent allowable error taken as 10%
Example (3)- In a watershed there are total 7 rain gauge stations, out of which one is siphon type rain gauge. On the basis of
statistical analysis of long term rainfall data of said watershed the coefficient of variation is obtained as 35%. Determine the
adequate number of rain gauge stations to be in the watershed. Take the value of allowable percent error in estimation as
10%.
Solution- Adequacy of rain gauge stations is given by the following formula,
in which, N is the adequate number of rain gauge stations to be; CV is the

coefficient of variation given as 35% and Ԑ percent allowable error is 10%.
Substituting these values in above formula; and after solving,
we have, N= (35/10)2 N= 12.25 = 12.0

Rainfall Cont.
Normal Rainfall- It is an average of the rainfall values over a 30-year period.
Common Errors in Rainfall Measurement

Few important errors in rainfall measurement by the raingauge are mentioned as
under,
1. In non- recording type raingauge (Symons’s type) about 2% error is introduced
due to displacement of water level by measuring scale.
2. Possibility of errors due to initial wetting of dried surface of the catch can or
receiver.
3. The dents in catch can or receiver also introduces errors in measurement.
4. A high temperature cause evaporation loss also signifies a kind of errors in
rainfall measurement. The errors may be up to 2%.
5. A high wind velocity deflects the rainfall to fall at the mouth of the rain gauge,
introduces an errors in rainfall catching. The research revealed that at the wind
velocity of 10mile per hour the catching of rainfall is declined to the tune of
about 17% while at 30mile per hour it may be up to 60%.

Rainfall Cont.
The following methods are commonly used for computing the
value of missing rainfall data:
1. Arithmetic Mean Method

2. Normal Ratio Method
Arithmetic Mean Method- This method follows the following formula for
determining the mean
aerial rainfall,
in which 'n' is the number of raingauge stations in nearby area, 'Pi' is rainfall
depth at ith station and 'Px' is missing
04/15/2024 rainfall
Prepared by AD data.
Mohammed 30
Rainfall Cont.
Normal Ratio Method- This method is used when normal annual rainfall at any of the
index station differs from the interpolation station by more than 10%. Missing rainfall
data is predicted by weighing the rainfall of index stations by the ratios of their normal
annual rainfall. Formula is given as under,
For 3 number of defined index raingauge stations the above formula is expanded
as
in which Px is the missing rainfall at raingauge station 'x' of a given rainfall event, Pi
is the precipitation for the same period and same rainfall event of "ith" raingauge
station among group of index stations, Nx the normal annual rainfall (NAR) of
station x and Ni the normal annual rainfall of 'ith' station.
Rainfall Cont.
Example 4 – Find the missing storm precipitation of station ‘c’ as given
In the following table:
Stations A B C D E
Storm Precipitation (cm) 9.7 8.3 - 11.7 8.0
Normal Annual Precipitation (cm) 100.3 100.1 93.5 101.2 100.0
Solution- The variation in normal rainfall data is less than 10% at all the
four rain gauge stations. In this condition, the arithmetic mean
method for computing the missing value of rainfall of station c is
suitable. Accordingly,
Px = (9.7+8.3+11.7+8.0)/4 = 9.4cm Ans

Rainfall Cont.
Example 5 - In a watershed four rain gauge stations namely A, B, C and D are
installed for recording rainfall data. The normal annual rainfall of these four
stations is 75, 60, 70.5 and 87 cm, respectively. The rain gauge station A does
not have the annual rainfall observation for one year during total length of
record, because of disorder of the rain gauge. Calculate the missing value of
rainfall data of rain gauge station A, if the rainfall (Storm Precipitation) recorded
at other three stations for that particular year was 85, 67.5 and 75 cm at B, C
and D, respectively.
Solution- The variation in normal rainfall data is more than 10% at some rain gauge
stations. In this condition, the normal ratio method for computing the missing
value of annual rainfall of station A is suitable. Accordingly, the formula for
computing the missing annual rainfall is given as under. in which,

Rainfall Cont.
Mean Areal Rainfall
Average rainfall is the representative of large area, which is
computed with the help of rainfall data generated from well
distributed raingauge network system of the watershed. The
computing methods are elaborated as under,
1. Arithmetic or station average method
2. Thiessen Polygon Method
3. Isohyetal Method.
Rainfall Cont.
Arithmetic Average Method
This method computes arithmetic average of the rainfall by
considering point rainfall observations of all the raingauge stations
installed in the area.
This method computes accurate value when rainfall is uniformly

distributed
in the entire area, as in this situation equal weightage of area is assigned to
the point rainfall data.
Formula is given as,
Where is the mean rainfall over an area, P is the point rainfall at

individual station i, and n is Prepared
04/15/2024 the total number of stations.
by AD Mohammed 35
Rainfall Cont.
Example (6)- In a topographically homogeneous watershed total four number of
non- recording and one recording type rain gauges have been installed for
recording the rainfall measurements. The point rainfall of four non- recording
type rain gauge stations have been observed to the tune of 250,175,225 and
270mm, respectively during a given rainfall event. Determine the mean areal
rainfall of the watershed for the said rainfall event.
Solution- The mean areal rainfall of the watershed can be computed by using the
simple arithmetic mean method, given as under:
= (250+175+225+270)/4
= 230mm Ans

Rainfall Cont.
Thiessen Polygon Method
This is a graphical method for computing mean areal
precipitation (MAP). It computes by weighing the relative
area of each raingauge station equipped in the watershed.
It follows the concept that the rainfall varies by its intensity

and duration, spatially. Therefore, the rainfall recorded by
each station should be weighed as per the influencing
area (polygons).
This method computes better for the areas having flat

topography and size ranging from 500 to 5000 km2.
Rainfall Cont.
Computing steps are described as under,
1. Plot the locations of raingauge stations on map of the area drawn to a scale.
2. Join each station by straight line.
3. Draw perpendicular bisectors of each line. These bisectors form polygons

around each station. Area enclosed within polygon is the effective area for the
station. For a raingauge station close to the boundary, the boundary lines
forms its effective area.
4. Determine effective area of each raingauge station. For this the planimeter can
be used.
5. Calculate MAP by using the following formula,

Rainfall Cont.
Computing steps cont.
in which, Pi is the rainfall depth of raingauge station

i, Ai is the area of enclosed polygon and A is the
total area of watershed.

Rainfall Cont.
Example (7)- Compute the mean areal rainfall of the watershed by using
Thiessen Polygon Method. The details are cited below
Solution-
in which, Pi is the rainfall depth for rain gauge station i and Ai is the area of
polygon enclosed by the rain gauge station i and A is the total area of
watershed
Rainfall Cont.
Solution Cont.-
Therefore, mean areal rainfall = 1005.60/95.25 = 10.56cm Ans.

Rainfall Cont.
Isohyetal Method
This is also a graphical method, in which an isohyets map is prepared with the
help of measured rainfall data of various raingauge stations located in the
watershed. An isohyet map includes a network of isohyet lines. Each line
represents a fixed value of rainfall depth.
Computation of MAP under this method is done by using following steps,
1- Collect the map of the area/watershed. The map should be to scale.

2- Draw isohyet lines on the map with the help of measured rainfall data of
various raingauge stations installed in the watershed.
3- Find the area enclosed between each isohyet.
4- Multiply the area enclosed between each isohyet by the average precipitation,
i.e
Rainfall Cont.
Isohyetal Method
Steps cont.
5- Find the sum of product of area enclosed and average of rainfall for
all segments of Isohyet map.
6. Divide the sum of the values found in step- 5 by the total area of the
watershed to get MAP of watershed.
Computing formula is mentioned as under,

Rainfall Cont.
Example (8)- In a watershed total five rain gauge stations
(A, B, C, D, E and F) are installed for taking rainfall
measurements. Calculate the mean areal rainfall depth
using Isohyetal Method for a particular rainfall event. The
details about measured rainfall and area enclosed by
respective rain gauge station are given as under.

Rainfall Cont.
Solution- In Isohyetal method of mean areal rainfall computation the
following formula is used.
The mean areal rainfall is equal to 2188.8/505= 4.33cm Ans

Example 1.1 A lake had a water surface elevation of
103.200m above datum at the beginning of a certain
month that has 30days. In that month, the lake
received an average inflow of 6.0m3/s from surface
runoff sources. In the same period the outflow from
the lake had an average value of 6.5m3/s. Further, in
that month, the lake received a rainfall of 14.5cm and
the evaporation from the lake surface was estimated
as 6.10cm. Write the water budget equation for the
lake and calculate the water surface elevation of the
lake at the end of the month. The average lake
surface area can be taken as 5000ha. Assume that
there is no contribution to or from the groundwater
storage.
SOLUTION:
In a time interval ∆t, the water budget for the lake can be
written as; Input volume – Output volume = change in
storage of the lake. (Ῑ∆t +PA)- (Ǭ∆t + EA) = ∆S.
Where; Ῑ = average rate of inflow of water into the lake. Ǭ =
average rate of outflow from the lake. P = precipitation, E=
evaporation, A = average surface area of the lake and ∆S=
change in storage volume of the lake.
So ∆t = 1 month=30x24x60x60=2.592x106 s = 2.592Ms
In one month:
Inflow volume = Ῑ∆t = 6.0x 2.592=15.552Mm3
Outflow volume = Ǭ∆t = 6.5x2.592=16.848Mm3
Input due to precipitation = PA = M m3 = 7.25 M m3
SOLUTION CONT…
Outflow due to evaporation =
EA = M m3 = 3.05 M m3
Hence ∆S =15.552 +7.25-16.848-3.05 = 2.904 M m3
Change in elevation ∆z = =
0.058m
New water surface elevation at the end of the month

= 103.200 + 0.058
= 103.258 m above the datum.
Example 1.2 A small catchment of area 150ha received a rainfall of
10.5cm in 90minutes due to a storm. At the outlet of the catchment,
the stream draining the catchment was dry before the storm and
experienced a runoff lasting for 10hrs with an average discharge of
1.5m3/s. The stream was again dry after the runoff event. (a) What is
the amount of water which was not available to runoff due to
combined effect of infiltration, evaporation and transpiration? (b)
What is the ratio of runoff to precipitation?
SOLUTION: The water budget equation for the catchment in a time ∆t is
R=P-L - - - - - - - - (1.2-b)
Where L= losses = water not available to runoff due to infiltration
(causing addition to soil moisture and groundwater storage),
evaporation, transpiration and surface storage.
In the present case ∆t=duration of the runoff =10hours.
Note that the rainfall occurred in the first 90 minutes and the rest 8.5hrs
the precipitation was zero.
SOLUTION CONT. :
(a) P = input due to precipitation in 10 hours
= 150 x 100 x 100 x (10.5/100) = 157,500 m3
R = runoff volume = outflow volume at the catchment outlet
in 10 hours
= 1.5x10x60x60=54,000m3
= hence losses L = 157500-54000m3
(b) Runoff/rainfall=54,000/157,500 = 0.343

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CVE 320

04/15/2024 Prepared by AD Mohammed 1

Urban Hydrology deals with the specific aspects

This includes all natural water flows as well as

04/15/2024 Prepared by AD Mohammed 4

04/15/2024 Prepared by AD Mohammed 5

1. Forestation and deforestation

2. Grazing and agriculture

04/15/2024 Prepared by AD Mohammed 11

A rain gauge is a meteorological instrument used

Types of Rain Gauges

04/15/2024 Prepared by AD Mohammed 13

04/15/2024 Prepared by AD Mohammed 14

(II) Tipping bucket type

(III) Floating or natural syphon type rain gauge

04/15/2024 Prepared by AD Mohammed 15

04/15/2024 Prepared by AD Mohammed 16

04/15/2024 Prepared by AD Mohammed 17

04/15/2024 Prepared by AD Mohammed 18

• Fault may be developed in electric and

04/15/2024 Prepared by AD Mohammed 20

04/15/2024 Prepared by AD Mohammed 21

3. Watershed soils/land ,and

4. Land use system.

Solution- The following standards are involved with the tipping

As per above, total number of tipping = (2.30*3600)/6=1380

Therefore, depth of rainfall = 1380*0.25 = 345mm ans.

Solution- As per WMO, the distribution of rain gauge station in

Accordingly, the number of rain gauge stations would be as below:

Ideal- 1500/200 = 7.5 = 8.0 (Assuming 1station/200sqkm)

Acceptable- 1500/750 = 2.0 (Assuming 1 station/750sqkm)

04/15/2024 Prepared by AD Mohammed 27

Where, N = adequate No. of raingauge stations

Solution- Adequacy of rain gauge stations is given by the following formula,

in which, N is the adequate number of rain gauge stations to be; CV is the

04/15/2024 Prepared by AD Mohammed 28

Common Errors in Rainfall Measurement

04/15/2024 Prepared by AD Mohammed 29

1. Arithmetic Mean Method

Storm Precipitation (cm) 9.7 8.3 - 11.7 8.0

Normal Annual Precipitation (cm) 100.3 100.1 93.5 101.2 100.0

Px = (9.7+8.3+11.7+8.0)/4 = 9.4cm Ans

04/15/2024 Prepared by AD Mohammed 33

1. Arithmetic or station average method

2. Thiessen Polygon Method

This method computes accurate value when rainfall is uniformly

Formula is given as,

Where is the mean rainfall over an area, P is the point rainfall at

04/15/2024 Prepared by AD Mohammed 36

It follows the concept that the rainfall varies by its intensity

This method computes better for the areas having flat

2. Join each station by straight line.

3. Draw perpendicular bisectors of each line. These bisectors form polygons

5. Calculate MAP by using the following formula,

in which, Pi is the rainfall depth of raingauge station

04/15/2024 Prepared by AD Mohammed 39

Therefore, mean areal rainfall = 1005.60/95.25 = 10.56cm Ans.

04/15/2024 Prepared by AD Mohammed 41

Computation of MAP under this method is done by using following steps,

1- Collect the map of the area/watershed. The map should be to scale.

Computing formula is mentioned as under,

04/15/2024 Prepared by AD Mohammed 43

04/15/2024 Prepared by AD Mohammed 44

The mean areal rainfall is equal to 2188.8/505= 4.33cm Ans

Hydraulics & Hydrology (Cve 320) 1

Hydraulics & Hydrology (Cve 320) 1