HISTOLOGY

DR AISHA MOHD DIN

Department of Basic Sciences
 Learning Outcome
• Name the different types of tissue
classes into which all adult tissues are
classified
• Describe the classes of connective
tissues in human body
 The Study of Tissues
• Histology (microscopic anatomy)
– study of tissues organ formation

• Four primary tissue classes

– epithelial tissue
– connective tissue
– muscular tissue
– nervous tissue
 Features of Tissue Classes
• Tissue are formed from similar cells
– arise from same region of embryo
• Organ
– composed of 2 or more tissue types
• Differences between tissue classes
– types and functions of cells
– characteristics of matrix (extracellular material)
• fibrous proteins
• ground substance
– clear gels (ECF, tissue fluid, interstitial fluid, tissue gel)
– rubbery or stony in cartilage or bone
– space occupied by cells versus matrix
• connective tissue cells are widely separated
• little matrix between epithelial and muscle cells
 Embryonic Tissues
• Embryo begins as single cell
– divides into many cells and layers (strata)
• 3 Primary germ layers
– ectoderm (outer)
– endoderm (inner)
– mesoderm (middle) becomes mesenchyme
 Epithelial Tissue
• Layers of closely adhering cells
• Flat sheet with upper surface exposed to the
environment or an internal body cavity
• No blood vessels
– underlying connective tissue supplies oxygen
• Rests on basement membrane
– thin layer of collagen and adhesive proteins
– anchors epithelium to connective tissue
 Simple Versus Stratified
Epithelia
• Simple epithelium
– contains one layer of cells
– named by shape of cells
• Stratified epithelium
– contains more than one layer
– named by shape of apical cells
Simple Squamous Epithelium

• Single row of flat cells

• Permits diffusion of substances
• Secretes serous fluid
• Alveoli, glomeruli, endothelium, and serosa
Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

• Single row cube-shaped cells with microvilli

• Absorption and secretion, mucus production
• Liver, thyroid, mammary and salivary glands,
bronchioles, and kidney tubules
Simple Columnar Epithelium

• Single row tall, narrow cells

– oval nuclei in basal half of cell
• Absorption and secretion; mucus secretion
• Lining of GI tract, uterus, kidney and uterine
tubes
Pseudostratified Epithelium

• Single row of cells some not reaching free

surface
– nuclei give layer stratified look
• Secretes and propels respiratory mucus 5-12
 Stratified Epithelia

• Has 2 to 20 or more layers of cells

• Named for shape of surface cells
– exception is transitional epithelium
• Deepest cells on basement membrane
• Variations
– keratinized epithelium has surface layer of
dead cells
– nonkeratinized epithelium lacks the layer of
dead cells
Keratinized Stratified Squamous

• Multilayered epithelium covered with dead

squamous cells, packed with keratin
– epidermal layer of skin
• Retards water loss and barrier to organisms
Nonkeratinized Stratified Squamous

• Multilayered surface epithelium forming moist, slippery layer

• Lacks layer of dead cells
• Tongue, oral mucosa, esophagus and vagina
Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium

• Two or more cell layers; surface cells square

• Secretes sweat; produces sperm and hormones
• Sweat gland ducts; ovarian follicles and
seminiferous tubules
 Transitional Epithelium

• Multilayered epithelium surface cells that change

from round to flat when stretched
– allows for filling of urinary tract
– ureter and bladder
 Connective Tissue
• Widely spaced cells separated by fibers
and ground substance
• Most abundant and variable tissue type
• Functions
– connects organs
– gives support and protection (physical and
immune)
– stores energy and produces heat
– movement and transport of materials
Connective Tissue Ground Substance

• Gelatinous material between cells

– absorbs compressive forces
• Consists of 3 classes of large molecules
– glycosaminoglycans – chondroitin sulfate
• disaccharides that attract sodium and hold water
• role in regulating water and electrolyte balance
– Proteoglycan (bottlebrush-shaped molecule)
• create bonds with cells or extracellular
macromolecules
– adhesive glycoproteins
• protein-carbohydrate complexes bind cell
membrane to collagen outside the cells
Fibrous Connective Tissue Types
• Loose connective tissue
– gel-like ground substance between cells
– types
• areolar
• reticular
• adipose

• Dense connective tissue

– fibers fill spaces between cells
– types vary in fiber orientation
• dense regular connective tissue
• dense irregular connective tissue
 Areolar Tissue

• Loose arrangement of fibers and cells in

abundant ground substance
• Underlies all epithelia, between muscles,
passageways for nerves and blood vessels
 Reticular Tissue

• Loose network of reticular fibers and cells

• Forms supportive stroma (framework) for
lymphatic organs
• Found in lymph nodes, spleen, thymus and
bone marrow
 Adipose Tissue

• Empty-looking cells with thin margins; nucleus pressed against

cell membrane
• Energy storage, insulation, cushioning
– subcutaneous fat and organ packing
– brown fat (fetus, infants and children) produces heat
Dense Regular Connective Tissue

• Densely, packed, parallel collagen fibers

– compressed fibroblast nuclei
• Tendons and ligaments hold bones together and
attach muscles to bones
Dense Irregular Connective Tissue

• Densely packed, randomly arranged, collagen

fibers and few visible cells
– withstands stresses applied in different directions
– deeper layer of skin; capsules around organs
 Cartilage
• Supportive connective tissue with rubbery
matrix
• Chondroblasts produce matrix
– called chondrocytes once surrounded
• No blood vessels
– diffusion brings nutrients and removes
wastes
– heals slowly
• Types of cartilage vary with fiber types
– hyaline, fibrocartilage and elastic cartilage
 Hyaline Cartilage

• Rubbery matrix; dispersed collagen fibers; clustered

chondrocytes in lacunae
– supports airway, eases joint movements
• Ends of bones at movable joints; sternal ends of ribs;
supportive material in larynx, trachea, bronchi and
fetal skeleton
 Elastic Cartilage

• Hyaline cartilage with elastic fibers

• Provides flexible, elastic support
– external ear and epiglottis
 Fibrocartilage

• Hyaline cartilage with extensive collagen fibers (never

has perichondrium)
• Resists compression and absorbs shock
– pubic symphysis, meniscus and intervertebral discs
 Bone
• Spongy bone - spongy in appearance
– delicate struts of bone
– covered by compact bone
– found in heads of long bones
• Compact bone - solid in appearance
– more complex arrangement
– cells and matrix surround vertically
oriented blood vessels in long bones
 Blood
• Variety of cells and cell fragments; some
with nuclei and some without
• Nonnucleated pale pink cells or
nucleated white blood cells
• Found in heart and blood vessels
 Nerve Tissue
• Large cells with long cell processes
– surrounded by smaller glial cells lacking processes
• Internal communication between cells
– found in brain, spinal cord, nerves and ganglia
 Muscle Tissue

• Elongated cells stimulated to contract

• Exert physical force on other tissues
– move limbs
– push blood through a vessel
– expel urine
• Source of body heat
• 3 histological types of muscle
– skeletal, cardiac and smooth
 Skeletal Muscle
• Long, cylindrical, unbranched cells with
striations and multiple peripheral nuclei
– movement, facial expression, posture, breathing,
speech, swallowing and excretion
 Cardiac Muscle
• Short branched cells with striations and
intercalated discs
– one central nuclei per cell
• Pumping of blood by cardiac (heart) muscle
 Smooth Muscle

• Short fusiform cells; nonstriated with only one central

nucleus
– sheets of muscle in viscera; iris; hair follicles and
sphincters
– swallowing, GI tract functions, labor contractions,
control of airflow, erection of hairs and control of pupil
 Stem Cells
• Undifferentiated cells with developmental
plasticity
• Embryonic stem cells
– totipotent (any cell type possible)
• source = cells of very early embryo
– Pluripotent (tissue types only possible)
• source = cells of inner cell mass of embryo
• Adult stem cells (undifferentiated cells in
tissues of adults)
– multipotent (bone marrow producing several
blood cell types)
– unipotent (only epidermal cells produced)
 Tissue Shrinkage and Death
• Atrophy = loss of cell size or number
– disuse atrophy from lack of use (leg in a cast)
• Necrosis = pathological death of tissue
– gangrene - insufficient blood supply
– gas gangrene - anaerobic bacterial infection
– infarction - death of tissue from lack of blood
– decubitus ulcer - bed sore or pressure sore
• Apoptosis = programmed cell death
– cells shrink and are phagocytized (no
inflammation)
 Tissue Repair
• Regeneration
– replacement of damaged cells with original
cells
– skin injuries and liver regenerate
• Fibrosis
– replacement of damaged cells with scar
tissue
• function is not restored
– healing muscle injuries, scarring of lung tissue in TB or
healing of severe cuts and burns of the skin
– keloid is healing with excessive fibrosis
(raised shiny scars)