Semester Progress Review Presentation

VIII Semester 2023-2024

LITERATURE REVIEW ON MICROSTRUCTURE AND CORROSION PROPERTIES
OF POST-WELD HEAT-TREATED DUPLEX STAINLESS STEEL MADE WITH
TIG AND A-TIG WELDMENTS

Presented by Project Guide

M.HARSHAD KUMAR 21A85A0309 Dr. K. DORATHI M.E,Ph.D

R.SATHISH 21A85A0319
R.LOKESH 21A85A0320
U.SRIKANU 21A85A0324

Department Of Mechanical Engineering

Sri Vasavi Engineering College
Pedatadepalli, Tadepalligudem, AP - 534101
 CONTENTS

• INTRODUCTION

• LITERATURE STUDY

• PROGRESS OF WORK
MICROSTRUCTURE AND METALLOGRAPHY:-

Metallography is the science of studying the microstructure of metals and

alloys. Microstructure refers to the internal structure of a material, which can
be seen on a microscopic level. It includes features such as the size and shape
of grains, the presence of phases, and the presence of defects.

Metallography is used to understand the relationship between the

microstructure of a material and its properties. This information is essential for
developing new materials and improving the performance of existing materials.
1.Specimen preparation: The first step in metallography is to prepare a
specimen of the material to be studied. This involves cutting, grinding, and
polishing the specimen to create a smooth, flat surface.
2.Etching: The specimen is then etched with a chemical solution that attacks
different phases of the material at different rates. This helps to reveal the
microstructure of the material.
3.Microscopy: The etched specimen is examined under a microscope. The
microscope can be used to magnify the microstructure of the material by up to
thousands of times.
4.Analysis: The metallurgist then analyzes the microstructure of the material to
identify the different phases present, the size and shape of the grains, and the
presence of any defects.
CORROSION
Definition:
•Corrosion involves the transformation of a refined metal into a more chemically stable
form, often oxides, hydroxides, or sulfides.
•It weakens the material, affecting its strength, appearance, and functionality.
Causes:
•The primary driver of corrosion is the natural tendency of metals to return to their more
stable, oxidized state.
•Several factors can accelerate this process, including:
• Exposure to air and moisture: Oxygen and water react with metals, promoting
oxidation and corrosion.
• Presence of electrolytes: Salts and acids in the environment act as electrolytes,
facilitating the flow of electric current and accelerating corrosion.
• Stress: Mechanical stress on the metal can make it more susceptible to corrosion.
Types of Corrosion:
Corrosion can manifest in various forms depending on the specific circumstances:
•Uniform corrosion: Occurs evenly across the entire exposed surface of the material.
•Galvanic corrosion: Occurs when two dissimilar metals are in electrical contact in a
corrosive environment. The less noble metal corrodes faster.
•Pitting corrosion: Highly localized attack that creates deep pits in the metal surface.
•Crevice corrosion: Occurs in areas where stagnant conditions allow the buildup of corrosive
solutions.
•Intergranular corrosion: Preferentially attacks the grain boundaries of a metal, weakening its
structure.
TYPES OF CORROSION
POST-WELD HEAT TREATMENT
Post Weld Heat Treatment (PWHT) is a process performed after welding to improve the
mechanical and chemical properties of welded components. It involves subjecting the welded
structure to controlled heating and cooling cycles to relieve residual stresses
and enhance its integrity. PWHT helps reduce distortion, improve toughness, and
enhance resistance to brittle fracture in the welded material. The specific
parameters of PWHT, such as temperature, time, and cooling rate, are tailored to the material
composition, welding process, and intended application.

Procedure:-
•Post heating reduces the risk of hydrogen-induced cracking (HIC) in welded structures.
•HIC occurs in weldments with sensitive microstructures, high stress levels, and significant
hydrogen content.
•In ferritic steels, hydrogen embrittlement can occur near ambient temperature.
•Post heating involves heating the welded region immediately after welding.
•The welded area is held at a specific temperature for a set duration to diffuse hydrogen.
•Typically, the post-heating temperature is maintained at 230°C.
•The duration of post heating is typically one hour per inch of thickness.
•Post heating may be required by codes such as ASME Section III and NBIC.
•It is often necessary for critical repairs, as defined under fracture control plans (FCP) in
codes like AASHTO/AWS D1.5.
•However, post heating is not mandatory if conditions for hydrogen cracking are absent.
Advantages of Post-Weld Heat Treatment (PWHT):
1. Reduction of residual stresses, improving fatigue life and preventing potential cracks from
developing
2. Improved microstructural homogeneity, leading to enhanced mechanical properties like
ductility and toughness
3. Increased tensile strength, particularly after certain temperature regimes during PWHT
4. Enhanced corrosion resistance, especially important for materials prone to localized corrosion
Disadvantages of Post-Weld Heat Treatment:
5. Additional processing step, increasing overall production time and cost
6. Potential loss of specific material characteristics, such as precipitation strengthening effects in
certain alloys
7. Risk of distortion if proper control measures are not taken during heating and cooling cycles
8. For some applications, PWHT may not be essential or even beneficial, potentially negating
any cost benefits associated with alternative manufacturing techniques
STEEL :-
Steel is a versatile and widely used alloy primarily composed of iron and carbon, typically containing up to 2.1% carbon by weight. It is one of
the most important materials in modern industrial applications due to its excellent mechanical properties, versatility, and relatively low cost.
Steel's properties can be further tailored by adjusting its composition, including the carbon content and the addition of various alloying
elements. Here's an overview of different types of steel compositions and their applications:
1.Low Carbon Steel:
1. Composition: Contains a carbon content typically less than 0.30%.
2. Properties: Low carbon steel is relatively soft, ductile, and easily machinable. It exhibits good weldability and can be easily formed
into various shapes.
3. Applications: Used in construction for structural components, such as beams and columns, as well as in the manufacture of
automotive parts, machinery, and pipelines.
2.Medium Carbon Steel:
1. Composition: Contains a carbon content ranging from 0.30% to 0.60%.
2. Properties: Medium carbon steel possesses higher strength and hardness compared to low carbon steel. It is more resistant to wear
and abrasion but less ductile.
3. Applications: Commonly used for making shafts, gears, axles, rails, and components requiring higher strength and wear resistance,
such as crankshafts and couplings.
3.High Carbon Steel:
1. Composition: Contains a carbon content typically greater than 0.60%.
2. Properties: High carbon steel is characterized by its high hardness, strength, and wear resistance. However, it tends to be more brittle
and less ductile, requiring careful heat treatment.
3. Applications: Ideal for applications requiring sharp edges, such as cutting tools (e.g., knives, saw blades), springs, and high-strength
wires. It's also used in components like chisels and punches.
STAINLESS STEEL:-
•Composition: Contains at least 10.5% chromium, which forms a passive oxide layer that provides excellent corrosion
resistance. Nickel, molybdenum, and other elements are often added to enhance specific properties.
•Properties: Stainless steel is corrosion-resistant, durable, and has good mechanical properties. It comes in various grades,
each offering different combinations of properties.
•Applications: Widely used in kitchen utensils, cutlery, appliances, automotive parts, architectural structures, and medical
devices due to its corrosion resistance and aesthetic appeal.

TYPES OF STAINLESS STEELS:-

1.Austenitic Stainless Steel:
• Composition: Austenitic stainless steels are primarily composed of
chromium (usually 16-26%) and nickel (usually 6-22%), along with
small amounts of other elements such as manganese, nitrogen, and
molybdenum.
• Properties: They are non-magnetic, highly corrosion-resistant, and have
excellent formability and weldability. They also exhibit good mechanical
properties at both high and low temperatures.
• Applications: Austenitic stainless steels are widely used in various
industries, including food processing, chemical processing,
pharmaceuticals, automotive, and architectural applications. Common
grades include 304 (S30400) and 316 (S31600).
 2.Ferritic Stainless Steel:
• Composition: Ferritic stainless steels contain chromium (usually 10-30%)
and little to no nickel, with small amounts of other elements such as
manganese and molybdenum.
• Properties: They are magnetic, have good corrosion resistance in many
environments, and offer higher strength than austenitic stainless steels.
However, they generally have lower toughness and weldability.
• Applications: Ferritic stainless steels are often used in automotive exhaust
systems, appliances (such as refrigerators and dishwashers), architectural
trim, and decorative applications. Common grades include 430 (S43000).

3.Martensitic Stainless Steel:

• Composition: Martensitic stainless steels contain higher levels of carbon
(usually 0.1-1.2%) and chromium (usually 12-18%) compared to other types
of stainless steel, with minimal to no nickel.
• Properties: They are magnetic and offer high strength, hardness, and wear
resistance. Martensitic stainless steels can be hardened by heat treatment,
making them suitable for applications requiring a combination of corrosion
resistance and high strength.
• Applications: Martensitic stainless steels are used in cutlery, surgical
instruments, shafts, valves, and other components requiring hardness and
wear resistance. Common grades include 410 (S41000) and 420 (S42000).
 4.Duplex Stainless Steel:
• Composition: Duplex stainless steels have a two-phase microstructure
consisting of approximately equal proportions of austenite and ferrite. They
typically contain high levels of chromium (19-28%), nickel (4-8%), and
molybdenum (up to 5%).
• Properties: Duplex stainless steels offer a combination of high strength,
corrosion resistance, and improved stress corrosion cracking resistance
compared to austenitic and ferritic stainless steels. They also have good
weldability.
• Applications: Duplex stainless steels are used in applications such as
chemical processing, oil and gas exploration, marine environments, and
structural components where high strength and corrosion resistance are
required. Common grades include 2205 (S32205) and 2507 (S32750).
DUPLEX STAINLESS STEEL:-
Definition:-
Duplex stainless steels get their name from their two-phase
microstructure.
While exact ratios vary by grade, most duplex steels have a
structure that is roughly 50-percent austenite and 50-percent
ferrite.

This gives duplex stainless many of the perks of austenitic and

ferritic families of steel while also minimizing the weaknesses.
As with other families of stainless, the exact metallurgic
composition of the steel varies by grade, though common
components include:
• Carbon
• Manganese
• Silicon
• Chromium
• Nickel
• Phosphorous
• Sulphur
Molybdenum, nitrogen, and copper may also be used to further
influence characteristics of the final product.
HISTORY OF DUPLEX STAINLESS STEEL:-
The concept of duplex stainless alloys was discussed as early as the 1920s. However, production of the first
duplex alloys did not begin until the 1930s.
These earliest duplex alloys were mostly limited to cast production and specific uses as they contained a
relatively high amount of carbon.
However, by the end of the 1960s, decarburization allowed metal foundries to create low-carbon steels
with high chromium and nickel content while further balancing the ferrite and austenite structure.
This lead to a new generation of duplex alloys with better performance and fewer downsides.
These duplex stainless steels share many similarities with the modern alloys in production today -- in
particular, Duplex 2205 (UNS S21803/32205).
Developed in the mid-1970s, this alloy is still popular today providing corrosion resistance superior to
common austenitic stainless steel grades, such as 304 (UNS S30400), 316 (UNS S31600), and 317 (UNS
S31700).
Though newer standards use different ranges of chromium, molybdenum and nickel, industries can thank
the original grades pioneered in the 1970s for the range of duplex stainless steels in use today.
BENEFITS OF DUPLEX STAINLESS STEEL:-
• Strength: Up to double that of austenitic and ferritic grades.
• Toughness: High formability under pressure, greater toughness.
• Corrosion Resistance: Comparable or better than austenitic
grades, especially against crevice corrosion and chloride pitting.
• Cost-effectiveness: Requires less molybdenum and nickel,
stable pricing, thinner parts possible, lowering costs.
Principle of Duplex Stainless Steels:-
The idea of duplex stainless steels dates back to the 1920s with the first cast being made at Avesta in Sweden in 1930. However, it is
only in the last 30 years that duplex steels have begun to “take off” in a significant way. This is mainly due to advances in steelmaking
techniques particularly with respect to control of nitrogen content.
The standard austenitic steels like 304, (1.4301), and ferritic steels like 430 are relatively easy to make and to fabricate. As their names
imply, they consist mainly of one phase, austenite or ferrite. Although these types are fine for a wide range of applications, there are
some important technical weaknesses in both types:
Austenitic – low strength, (200 MPa 0.2% PS in solution annealed condition), low resistance to stress corrosion cracking
Ferritic – low strength, (a bit higher than austenitic, 250 MPa 0.2% PS), poor weldability in thick sections, poor low temperature
toughness
In addition, the high nickel content of the austenitic types leads to price volatility which is unwelcome to many end users.
The basic idea of duplex is to produce a chemical composition that leads to an approximately equal mixture of ferrite and austenite. This
balance of phases provides the following:
• Higher strength – The range of 0.2% PS for the current duplex grades is from 400 – 550 MPa. This can lead to reduced section
thicknesses and therefore to reduced weight. This advantage is particularly significant for applications such as:
o Pressure Vessels and Storage Tanks
o Structural Applications, e.g. bridges
• Good weldability in thick sections – Not as straightforward as austenitics, but much better than ferritics.
• Good toughness – Much better than ferritics particularly at low temperature, typically down to minus 50 deg. C, stretching to minus
80 deg. C.
• Resistance to stress corrosion cracking – Standard austenitic steels are particularly prone to this type of corrosion. The kind of
applications where this advantage is important include:
o Hot water tanks
o Brewing tanks
o Process plant
o Swimming pool structure
How the Austenite/Ferrite Balance is Achieved
To understand how duplex steels work, first compare the composition of two familiar steels austenitic 304, (1.4301), and ferritic
430, (1.4016).

Structure Grade EN C Si Mn P S N Cr Ni Mo
Number
Ferritic 430 1.4016 0.08 1.00 1.00 0.040 0.015 - 16.0/18.0 - -

Austenitic 304 1.4301 0.07 1.00 2.00 0.045 0.015 0.11 17.5/19.5 8.0/10.5 -

The important elements in stainless steels can be classified into ferritisers and austenitisers. Each element favours one structure
or the other, as follows:
Ferritisers – Cr (chromium), Si (silicon), Mo (molybdenum), W (tungsten), Ti (titanium), Nb (niobium)
Austenitisers – C (carbon), Ni (nickel), Mn (manganese), N (nitrogen), Cu (copper)
Grade 430 has a predominance of ferritisers, and so is ferritic in structure. Grade 304 becomes austenitic mainly through the use
of about 8% nickel. To arrive at a duplex structure with about 50% of each phase, there has to be a balance between the
austenitisers and the ferritisers. This explains why the nickel content of duplex steels is generally lower than for austenitics.
Here are some typical compositions of duplex stainless steels:
Grade EN Type Approx. Composition
No/UNS
Cr Ni Mo N Mn W Cu
2101 LDX 1.4162/ Lean 21.5 1.5 0.3 0.22 5 - -
S32101
DX2202 1.4062/ Lean 23 205 0.3 0.2 1.5 - -
S32202
RDN 903 1.4482/ Lean 20 1.8 0.2 0.11 4.2 - -
S32001
2304 1.4362/ Lean 23 4.8 0.3 0.10 - - -
S32304
2205 1.4462/ Standard 22 5.7 3.1 0.17 - - -
S31803/
S32205
2507 1.4410/ Super 25 7 4 0.27 - - -
S32750
Zeron 100 1.4501/ Super 25 7 3.2 0.25 - 0.7 0.7
S32760
Ferrinox 1.4507/ Super 25 6.5 3.5 0.25 - - 1.5
255/ S32520/
Uranus 2507Cu S32550
Stress Corrosion Cracking
(SCC):-
SCC is a form of corrosion which occurs with a particular combination of factors:
• Tensile stress
• Corrosive environment
• Sufficiently high temperature. Normally 50 deg. C, but can occur at lower temperatures around 25 deg. C in specific
environments, notably swimming pools.
Unfortunately, the standard austenitic steels like 304, (1.4301), and 316, (1.4401), are the most susceptible to SCC. The
following materials are much less prone to SCC:
• Ferritic stainless steels
• Duplex stainless steels
• High nickel austenitic stainless steels
The resistance to SCC makes duplex steels suitable materials for many processes which operate at higher temperatures,
notably:
• Hot water boilers
• Brewing tanks
• Desalination
Stainless steel structures in swimming pools are known to be prone to SCC. The use of standard austenitic stainless steels
like 304 and 316 is forbidden in this application, i.e. where there are load bearing requirements and/or safety considerations.
The best steels to use for this purpose are the high nickel austenitic steels such as the 6% Mo grades. However, in some
cases, duplex steels such as 2205, (1.4462), and the superduplex grades can be considered.
Barriers to Using Duplex Steels
The attractive combination of high strength, wide range of corrosion
resistance, moderate weldability would seem to offer great potential for
increasing the market share of duplex stainless steels. However, it is
important to understand the limitations of duplex stainless steels and why
they are always likely to be “niche players”.
The advantage of high strength immediately becomes
a disadvantage when considering formability and machinability. The
high strength also comes with lower ductility than austenitic grades.
Therefore, any application requiring a high degree of formability, for
example, a sink, is ruled out for duplex grades. Even when the ductility is
adequate, higher forces are required to form the material, for example in
tube bending. There is one exception to the normal rule of poorer
machinability, grade 1.4162.
The metallurgy of duplex stainless steels is much more complex than for
austenitic or ferritic steels. This is why 3 day conferences can be devoted
just to duplex! This factor means that they are more difficult to produce
at the mill and to fabricate.
In addition to ferrite and austenite, duplex steels can also form a number
of unwanted phases if the steel is not given the correct processing,
notably in heat treatment. Two of the most important phases are
illustrated in the diagram below:
Both of these phases lead to embrittlement, i.e. loss of impact toughness.
The formation of sigma phase is most likely to occur when the cooling rate during manufacture or welding is not fast
enough. The more highly alloyed is the steel, the higher is the probability of sigma phase formation. Therefore, superduplex
steels are most prone to this problem.
475 degree embrittlement is due to the formation of a phase called α′, (alpha prime). Although the worst temperature is 475
deg. C, it can still form at temperatures as low as 300 deg. C. This leads to a limitation on the maximum service temperature
for duplex steels. This restriction reduces the potential range of applications even further.
At the other end of the scale, there is a restriction on the low temperature use of duplex stainless steels compared to
austenitic grades. Unlike austenitic steels, duplex steels exhibit a ductile-brittle transition in the impact test. A typical test
temperature is minus 46 deg. C for offshore oil and gas applications. Minus 80 deg. C is the lowest temperature that is
normally encountered for duplex steels.
USES FOR DUPLEX STAINLESS STEEL:-
• Offshore and near-shore operations such as
oil drilling, desalination, water treatment,
and other industrial operations
• Chemical and liquid processing
• Naval parts and components
• Pollution control equipment
• Pulp and paper production
• Construction
• Hot water and brewing tanks
ADVANTAGES OF DUPLEX STAINLESS STEEL OVER TRADITIONAL STAINLESS STEEL:-

Advantages Duplex Stainless Steel Traditional Stainless Steels

Strength Higher strength, up to 2 times stronger Lower strength compared to duplex

grades
Corrosion Resistance Comparable or better corrosion Good corrosion resistance, especially in
resistance austenitic grades
Weldability Moderate weldability Good weldability, especially in austenitic
grades
Formability Reduced formability due to higher Higher formability due to lower strength
strength
Machinability Generally poorer machinability Better machinability in some grades

Cost Lower cost due to less nickel and Higher cost due to higher alloy content
molybdenum
CHALLENGES:-
1. Formability: Duplex stainless steel has reduced formability compared to traditional stainless steels due to its higher
strength, limiting its suitability for applications requiring extensive shaping or deep drawing.
2. Machinability: Generally, duplex stainless steel exhibits poorer machinability compared to austenitic stainless steels,
posing challenges in machining operations and often requiring special tooling and techniques for optimal results.
3. Weldability: While duplex stainless steel has moderate weldability, special attention is needed during welding to
prevent the formation of unwanted phases and ensure proper joint integrity.
4. Complexity of Metallurgy: The metallurgy of duplex stainless steels is more complex than traditional stainless steels,
making them challenging to produce, fabricate, and process. This complexity requires specialized knowledge and
equipment.
LIMITATIONS:-
5. Unwanted Phase Formation: Without proper processing, duplex stainless steel can form unwanted phases such as
sigma phase and alpha prime (α′), which can lead to embrittlement and reduced mechanical properties.
6. Corrosion in Aggressive Environments: In highly aggressive environments containing high concentrations of chloride
or sulfur compounds, duplex stainless steel may experience localized corrosion, reducing its effectiveness.
3. Cost: While duplex stainless steel can offer cost advantages compared to some traditional austenitic stainless steels due
to lower nickel and molybdenum content, it may still be more expensive than certain ferritic grades. Additionally, the
complexity of processing and fabrication can contribute to higher production costs.
4. Availability of Grades: The range of available grades of duplex stainless steel may be more limited compared to
traditional stainless steels. This limitation can restrict options for specific applications where a particular grade with
specific properties is required, leading to potential compromises in performance or suitability.
TIG WELDING:-
Definition:-
TIG welding uses an inert gas shielded arc welding process with a non-consumable electrode. The electrode used in this
process may consist of pure tungsten, tungsten with a 1 to 2% thoria mix, or tungsten with 0.15 to 0.40% zirconia. Pure
tungsten electrodes are less expensive but have lower current-carrying capacity. Thoriated tungsten electrodes, on the
other hand, can carry higher currents and are preferred due to their ease of striking and maintaining a stable arc.
Zirconia-added tungsten electrodes offer better performance than pure tungsten but are inferior to thoriated tungsten
electrodes. Tungsten inert gas welding provides versatility and control for welding a wide range of materials, making it
a popular choice in industries such as automotive, aerospace, and construction.
COMPONENTS:-
1.Power Source
The power source is the primary equipment unit in TIG welding, requiring a high-current power supply. TIG welding
utilities AC and DC power sources, with DC current commonly used for materials such as stainless steel, mild steel,
copper, titanium, and nickel alloys. Alternating current is suitable for aluminium, aluminium alloys, and magnesium.
The power source typically comprises a transformer, rectifier, and electronic controls, with voltage requirements
ranging from 10 to 35 V and current ranging from 5 to 300 A to ensure proper arc generation.
2.TIG Torch
The TIG welding torch is a crucial component of the process, consisting of three main parts: the tungsten
electrode, collets, and nozzle. The torch can be either water-cooled or air-cooled, depending on the application. The collet
securely holds the tungsten electrode and comes in various diameters to match the electrode size. The nozzle facilitates the
flow of the arc and shielding gases into the welding zone, featuring a small cross-section that promotes a highly intense arc.
The nozzle requires periodic replacement as it wears out due to the presence of intense sparks during welding operations .
 3.Shielding Gas Supply System
In TIG welding, argon or other inert gases are typically utilised as shielding gas. The primary function of the
shielding gas is to protect the weld from oxidation by preventing the ingress of oxygen or other atmospheric air
into the welded zone. The choice of inert gas depends on the specific metal being welded. A system is in place to
regulate the flow of the shielding gas into the welding zone, ensuring proper protection and control during the
welding process.
4.Filler Material
When welding thin sheets in TIG welding, filler material is often not required. However, for thicker welds, filler
material in the form of rods is manually fed into the weld zone. These filler rods serve to provide additional
material and strengthen the weld as needed.
Working Principle of TIG Welding

• Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) welding operates on the

same principle as arc welding, where a strong arc is
created between a tungsten electrode and the
workpiece. Typically, the workpiece is connected
to the positive terminal while the electrode is
connected to the negative terminal. This intense arc
generates heat energy, which is utilised to fuse and
join metal plates through fusion welding. A
shielding gas is employed during the TIG welding
process. to prevent oxidation and ensure a clean
weld surface.
 • In the TIG welding process, the welding arc is initiated by striking it using a torch, facilitated by an electric spark
generated by a high-frequency generator. This spark acts as a conductive path for the welding current through the
shielding gas, enabling the arc to be initiated while keeping the electrode and workpiece separated. The inert gas creates
a shielding atmosphere around the weld, protecting it from external atmospheric influences.

• Once the arc is established, the welder manipulates the torch in a circular motion, creating a welding pool that varies in
size based on the electrode size and current settings. Filler metal is manually added to the leading edge of the weld pool
as required. Gradually reducing the arc current helps solidify the weld crater and prevents crack formation at the end of
the weld. This process allows for precise control and can be successfully executed.
Advantages of TIG Welding:-
• High-quality and clean welds: TIG welding produces high-quality welds without the presence of slag, resulting in
stronger joints.
• Corrosion resistance and improved strength: The inert gas shield automatically protects the weld during the process,
making it resistant to corrosion, more ductile, and stronger.
• Versatility in welding positions: TIG welding can be applied in various positions, including horizontal, vertical, or flat.
• Manual and automatic application: TIG welding can be performed using both manual and automatic techniques,
providing flexibility in application.
• Suitable for thin materials and wide metal thickness range: TIG welding is well-suited for thin materials and can be
applied across a wide range of metal thicknesses.
• Minimal distortion: The small heat-affected zone in TIG welding results in less distortion of the workpiece.
• Controlled filler metal addition: Only the necessary amount of filler metal is added to the welding puddle, reducing
spatter and sparks.
 • Single shielding gas: TIG welding primarily utilities argon as the shielding gas for all applications.
• Minimal finishing required: TIG welding often requires little or no finishing process, with occasional grinding
or preparation before painting.
• Preferred for intricate works: TIG welding is the preferred choice for intricate projects where the shape and
precision of each weld joint are crucial.
Disadvantages of TIG Welding:-
TIG welding has some limitations and drawbacks:
• Limited metal thickness: TIG welding is generally suitable for welding metal thicknesses up to around 5 mm.
Beyond this range, alternative welding methods may be more appropriate.
• Skilled labour requirement: TIG welding demands high skill levels and expertise to ensure proper technique,
control, and weld quality. Adequate training and experience are essential for achieving successful TIG welds.
• Higher initial/setup cost: Compared to arc welding methods, TIG welding typically requires a higher initial
investment in equipment and setup. This can make it more expensive to implement, particularly for small-scale
operations or occasional welding needs.
• Slower welding process: TIG welding is generally slower compared to some other welding processes. The
precision, control, and quality achieved in TIG welding often come at the expense of increased welding time.
Application of TIG Welding:-
• Aluminium and aluminium alloys: TIG welding is widely utilised for welding aluminium alloys, stainless steel,
carbon-based alloys, copper-based alloys, and nickel-based alloys, offering excellent results and ensuring the integrity of
the welds.
• Welding dissimilar metals: TIG welding is particularly suitable for welding dissimilar metals, allowing for the joining
of different types of materials with precision and reliability.
• Aerospace industries: TIG welding is extensively used in the aerospace industry due to its ability to create high-quality,
precise welds required for critical components and structures in aircraft and spacecraft.
Activated TIG welding:-
Active tungsten inert gas (A-TIG) welding was invented in the 60s by researchers at the Paton Electric
Welding Institute (PWI) in Ukraine.
1.By applying a thin coating of an activating flux to the surface of the material before welding, the A-TIG
process can produce a drastic increase in weld bead penetration. In A-TIG, flux is pasted onto the surface of
the base material and filler wire is used.
2.To improve the penetration of TIG welding, thorough analysis has been done A-TIG welding (Active flux
TIG welding) because the weld shape is sensitive to the free oxygen content in the weld pool.
3.A-GTAW process can achieve, in a single pass, a full penetration weld in stainless steel up to 10mm
thickness without the use of bevel preparation and the addition of filler wire. The weldment aesthetics are
observed to be unaffected.
4.Although the A-TIG welding is still under consideration, the effects of the oxide flux quantity on the weld
penetration showed that the arc constriction and the reversed Marangoni convection on the top surface of
the weld pool were the main mechanism for changing the weld shape according to the experimental
investigation.
5.Comparison has been made between mechanical and metallurgical properties of welds with flux and
without flux. The A-GTAW process has been exploited to improve production efficiencies in a wide of
industries, including power generation, chemical, aerospace and marine manufacturing and in nuclear
power plants.
6.Activated flux is used in the A-TIG welding, which is the only difference from the conventional TIG
welding. Activated flux can be prepared by using different kind of component oxides packed in the
powdered form with about 30-60 μm particle size. These powders mixed with acetone, methanol, ethanol
etc. to produce a paint-like consistency.
7.Before welding, a thin layer of the flux, brushed on to the surface of the joint to be welded. The coating
density of the flux should be about 5-6 mg/cm². Activated TIG welding can increase the joint penetration
and weld depth-to-width ratio, thereby reducing the angular distortion of the weldment
ADVANTAGES OF A-TIG WELDING
The A-TIG process is suitable for any position welding. By employing A-TIG process, overall welding costs can be reduced upto
50%. These economics in fabrication costs can be achieved through:
 Reduction in bevel preparation requirements
 Decrease in number of weld passes
 Shortening of welding times
 Reduced consumption of welding filler wire
 Elimination of back gouging and grinding
 Reduced distortion
DISADVANTAGES OF A-TIG WELDING
Despite the productivity benefits of A- GTAW, industry to date has been slow in exploiting this process owing to the following
reasons:
 The use of the flux is seen as an additional cost and its application an additional operation.
 The commercial fluxes tend to produce an inferior surface finish compared to conventional TIG welding in mechanized
welding operations but in manual welding operations, the surface roughness is similar.
APPLICATIONS
Pipes and tubes in nuclear industry.
 Fabrication of pressure vessels and tube to tube sheets in heat exchangers
 Power and chemical industries,
 Hydraulic cylinders and undercarriage legs in aerospace industry.
 COMPARISION BETWEEN TIG AND A-TIG WELDING
TIG Welding A-TIG Welding
No activated flux is applied on the base plates at any stage of A thin layer of activated flux (mainly oxides or halides) is applied on the
welding. faying surfaces and surrounding areas of the base plates before
establishing the arc.

Depth of penetration achieved by TIG welding is less, typically A-TIG welding fetches enhanced penetration. More than 300%
a maximum of 3.5mm in a single pass. increment (10 – 12mm in a single pass) can be achieved by this process.

Cross-sectional area of the arc is comparatively more. This Activated flux can constrict the arc (reduced arc width), and thus
undesirably increases width of the weld bead. narrow weld bead can be achieved under same welding parameters.

Heat intensity of electric arc is also comparatively low. Heat intensity increases due to arc constriction.
Limited penetration necessitates edge preparation and Due to increased depth of penetration without any edge preparation,
multiple passes for welding thicker components. A-TIG welding can eliminate the requirements of edge preparation and
multiple passes.

The width of heat affected zone (HAZ) and angle of distortion Arc constriction and elimination of multiple passes together can
are comparatively more due to higher heat input per unit considerably reduce HAZ width and distortion.
area, especially for thicker components.

It can be advantageously applied for thin plates (thickness up It is preferred for joining thicker components.
to 3mm).
No additional step is required to apply flux on base plates. Additional step is required for preparation and application of flux. Cost
Cost of flux is not associated with it. of the flux is additional expenditure.

No slag layer forms on weld bead. Sometimes the activating flux leads to the formation of thin slag layer
on the weld bead.
LITERATURE REVIEW:
AUTHOR MATERIAL TITLE OBSERVATIONS
Tsann-Shyi duplex stainless Study of the 1.Use of SiO₂, MoO₃, and Cr₂O₃ fluxes led to a significant increase in
Chern, steel characteristics the penetration capability of TIG welds, improving joint penetration
Kuang-Hung of duplex and weld depth-to-width ratio
Tseng, stainless steel 2.The activated TIG process reduced angular distortion of grade 2205
Hsien-Lung Tsai activated stainless steel weldment
tungsten inert 3.The welded joint exhibited greater mechanical strength when using
gas welds SiO₂, MoO₃, and Cr₂O₃ fluxes
4.The plasma column and the anode root were observed to play a
role in determining the morphology of activated TIG welds
5.Surface appearance improved with the use of SiO₂ flux, whereas
TiO₂ and MnO₂ fluxes resulted in unsatisfactory surface appearances
due to excessive residual slag and spatters
6.The use of oxide fluxes changed the fluid flow patterns within the
molten pool, leading to deeper and more narrow welds
7.There is currently no consensus on the exact mechanism through
which the activating flux increases TIG joint penetration

These observations highlight the benefits of using specific fluxes in

activated TIG welding of duplex stainless steel and contribute to our
understanding of the underlying phenomena involved in the welding
process.
AUTHOR MATERIAL TITLE OBSERVATIONS
G.MAGUDEESW duplex stainless Optimization of Significance of Aspect Ratio: Aspect ratio influences solidification
ARAN steel process cracking in welds 8.
parameters of Factors Affecting Aspect Ratio:
Sreehari R. the activated Electrode Gap: Most significant factor affecting aspect ratio 8.
NAIR, tungsten inert Travel Speed: Has a minor impact on aspect ratio 8.
gas welding for Current and Voltage: Also influence aspect ratio 8.
L. SUNDAR, aspect ratio of Pooled ANOVA Analysis: Confirms electrode gap as significant for
N.HARIKANNA UNS S32205 aspect ratio 8.
N duplex stainless Confirmation Test: Validates optimal parameters using S/N ratio
steel welds prediction 8.
Experimental Setup: Used square butt joint configuration with
autogenous welding 2.
Taguchi Design: Employed for systematic experimentation and
parameter analysis 1.
These points summarize the key observations from the optimization
of ATIG welding parameters for UNS S32205 duplex stainless steel
welds.
AUTHOR MATERIAL TITLE OBSERVATIONS

Ziying Zhang, Hui super duplex Microstructure The study on UNS S32750 super duplex stainless steel welds after short-time heat
Zhao, Huizhen treatment revealed several key observations:
stainless steel evolution and Microstructure Evolution: The microstructure analysis showed a typical ferrite-austenite
Zhang, Jun Hu, pitting duplex structure in the base metal (BM). The ferrite and austenite phases exhibited
Jiarui Jin
corrosion elongation along the rolling direction with a banded structure. In the heat-affected zone
behavior of (HAZ) and weld metal (WM), the ferrite matrix was decorated with grain boundary
austenite (GBA) and intragranular austenite (IGA). Additionally, Widmanstätten austenite
UNS S32750 (WA) was observed to grow into the grains from the GBA. The morphology of the
super duplex austenite phase in the HAZ and WM appeared irregular, with coarser GBA compared to
stainless steel WA and IGA 8.
Pitting Corrosion Behavior: The pitting corrosion behavior of the stainless steel welds was
welds after evaluated through potentiodynamic polarization tests in a 1 mol/L NaCl electrolyte at
short-time heat 80℃. The critical pitting temperature (CPT) was determined by measuring the
treatment temperature at which the current density reached 100 μA/cm². The electrolyte was
bubbled with pure nitrogen gas to eliminate dissolved oxygen. If any crevice corrosion
was observed on the specimen surface, the test results were discarded. The CPT values
were averaged from at least three measurements for each specimen 8.
Chemical Composition: The mean chemical compositions of the test specimens after ten
times energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) measurements were reported. The
weight percentages of oxygen, aluminum, silicon, and calcium were determined to be
13.91±0.44, 30.44±0.835, 11.46±0.01, and 43.03±0.525, respectively 40.
These observations provide valuable insights into the microstructural changes and pitting
corrosion behavior of UNS S32750 super duplex stainless steel welds after short-time heat
treatment, contributing to a better understanding of the material's performance in
various applications.
AUTHOR MATERIAL TITLE OBSERVATIONS
Jagesvar Dual phase Effect of For joining DSS 2205 with austenitic grades like 316/316L and
Verma, duplex stainless welding 304/304L, the E/ER2209 electrode offers superior strength and
Ravindra steel processes and corrosion resistance compared to E309LMo and E309L electrodes.
Vasantrao conditions on Super DSS 2507 and 304L ASS can benefit from super DSS E/ER2594
Taiwade the and austenitic E/ER309LMo electrodes.
microstructure, Plasma arc welding enhances weldability for DSS grades, enabling
mechanical higher welding speeds and productivity with controlled heat input
properties and and acceptable ferrite levels compared to laser welding.
corrosion PCGTAW technique with very high cooling rates boosts austenite
resistance of phase and achieves optimal ferrite/austenite ratios in welds.
duplex stainless Hybrid (PAW+ TIG) or PAW processes with 3-4 kJ/mm energy input
steel increase productivity, previously considered immature for DSS 2205
weldments—A but now recommended.
review Advanced laser hybrid welding reduces heat input and distortion in
thick sections, offering higher productivity due to faster welding
speeds.
Friction stir welding and FW processes are suitable for thin sections of
DSS and super DSS but incomplete penetration limits their use for
thick sections, more appropriate for laboratory scale.
Welding DSS2205 with alloys like 16MnR, APIX70, and A36 carbon
steel may form type II boundaries and martensite prone to corrosion.
AUTHOR MATERIAL TITLE OBSERVATIONS
Raffi 2205 Duplex Effect of Duplex Stainless Steels of grade 2205 are successfully welded using
Mohammed, stainless steel Welding conventional GTAW and activated GTAW welding process. Relatively more
Process on about 52% increase in depth of penetration achieved by activated GTAW
process in a single pass than conventional GTAW process on a 6 mm thick
Madhusudhan Microstructure, plate. Weld bead width of activated GTAW is reduced by more than 11% for
Reddy G, Mechanical and the same welding currents with SiO2 flux.
Pitting 1. Microstructural change influences the mechanical properties and pitting
Srinivasa Rao K Corrosion corrosion of 2205 Duplex stainless steel and its welds. Weld zone observed
Behavior of to have austenite along with delta ferrite in both the welds. The area
2205 Duplex fraction of delta ferrite in the weld zone of conventional GTAW is higher
Stainless Steel when compared to that of activated GTAW.
Welds 2. 2. Tensile properties and hardness revealed that activated GTAW is as
efficient as conventional GTAW process in producing defect free & ductile
weld metals.
3. 3. Pitting corrosion resistance of activated GTAW is observed to be
significantly higher and is attributed to the microstructural changes that
occurred during welding along with reduction in active sites of austenite
and ferrite interfaces.
4. 4. Overall study established that activated – GTAW is recommended for
welding 2205 duplex stainless steel having more than 5mm thickness in
single pass with improved mechanical properties and pitting corrosion
resistance.
AUTHOR MATERIAL TITLE OBSERVATIONS
Sujeet Kumar , Super Duplex A review on arc Super duplex stainless steels have equal austenite and ferrite
A. Karpagaraj, Stainless Steels welding of contains, due to excellent corrosion resistance it is used in the
Rajesh Kumar (SDSS) Super Duplex mechanical, marine and gas industries. In this paper after studying
Stainless Steel many researcher’s analysis and results about the arc welding of
(SDSS) 2507 SDSS2507 following conclusion are made –

• GTAW is used to weld SDSS because of high quality weld deposited

and penetration depth and the productivity can be increased by the
use of activated flux tungsten inert gas welding.
• For joining SDSS using PAW has greater productivity, penetration
depth, and concentrated energy as compare to TIG.
• To maintain the phase balance of SDSS, chromium (Cr) and Nickel
(Ni) contains should be balance because Chromium performs as a
ferrite additive and Nickel performs as an Austenite additive.
Intermetallic phases affect mechanical properties like toughness,
hardness and tensile strength. Sigma (σ) phase causes a drastic
reduction in toughness value and increases the hardness value.
AUTHOR MATERIAL TITLE OBSERVATIONS
Aditya N. AISI duplex Welding During DSS welding, maintaining ferrite-austenite ratio is crucial; SAW
Chaudharia , stainless steel Behaviour of post-weld heat treatment increases σ and ϒ phases while decreasing γ
Kartikey Dixita , 2205(DSS) Duplex phase, affecting microhardness.
Gursimer S. Stainless Steel Higher Ni content in welding wire enhances austenite formation,
Bhatiaa , Bharat AISI 2205: A improving mechanical and corrosion resistance.
Singha*, Piyush Review TIG welding parameters like gas flow rate and speed affect base
Singhala , material behavior; activated TIG enhances weld depth and ferrite
Kuldeep K content.
Saxena PAW offers smaller heat affected zones and higher penetration-to-
width ratio.
LBW's high energy density affects mechanical and corrosive
properties; using nitrogen as shielding gas improves properties.
Friction-assisted welding is a solid state alternative to reduce
corrosion susceptibility in weld and heat-affected zones.
AUTHOR MATERIAL TITLE OBSERVATIONS
Duplex stainless A-TIG welding The study investigates the role of surface-active elements, particularly
Surinder steel (DSS) of process for activated flux, in metallurgical tests, drawing several conclusions:
Tathgir, Dinesh AISI 2205 enhanced- Dendrite growth angle varies with heat input; oxide-based flux
W. Rathod & penetration in influences dendrite spacing and length.
Ajay Batish Duplex Surface tension changes metal flow direction, promoting deeper
stainless-steel: penetration with activated flux.
effect of Convection dominates heat transfer in the molten pool, indicated by
activated fluxes higher Peclet number.
Ferrite phase solidifies first, followed by austenite, with oxygen
influencing dendrite growth.
Oxygen presence from fluxes can lead to gas formation, causing voids
and cracks, but has minimal impact on weld hardness.
PROGRESS OF WORK:-