Chapter 1

A View of Life

1
 1.1 How to Define Life
• Biology is the scientific study of life.

• There is great diversity among living things.

• Living things:
 are composed of the same chemical elements
as nonliving things.

 obey the same physical and chemical laws that

govern everything in the universe.

2
 Diversity of Life

Despite diversity, all living things share

the same basic characteristics.
3
 Characteristics of Life
1. Living things are organized.
• The levels of biological organization range
from atoms to the biosphere.

• The cell is the basic unit of structure and

function of all living things.
 Unicellular or multicellular

• Each level of organization is more complex

than the level preceding it.
 As biological complexity increases, each level
acquires new emergent properties. 4
 Levels of Biological Organization

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oxygen
Atom
Smallest unit of an element composed
of electrons, protons, and neutrons
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

methane
Molecule
Union of two or more atoms of
the same or different elements

oxygen
Atom
Smallest unit of an element composed
of electrons, protons, and neutrons
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

nerve cell plant cell

Cell
The structural and functional
unit of all living things

methane
Molecule
Union of two or more atoms of
the same or different elements

oxygen
Atom
Smallest unit of an element composed
of electrons, protons, and neutrons
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Tissue
A group of cells with a common
structure and function

nervous tissue epidermal tissue

Cell nerve cell plant cell

The structural and functional
unit of all living things

methane
Molecule
Union of two or more atoms of
the same or different elements

oxygen
Atom
Smallest unit of an element composed
of electrons, protons, and neutrons
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Organ leaves
the brain
Composed of tissues functioning
together for a specific task

Tissue
A group of cells with a common
structure and function

nervous tissue epidermal tissue

Cell nerve cell plant cell

The structural and functional
unit of all living things

Molecule methane
Union of two or more atoms of
the same or different elements

oxygen
Atom
Smallest unit of an element composed
of electrons, protons, and neutrons
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Organ System nervous shoot

Composed of several organs system system
working together

Organ
the brain leaves
Composed of tissues functioning
together for a specific task

Tissue
A group of cells with a common
structure and function

nervous tissue epidermal tissue

Cell nerve cell plant cell

The structural and functional
unit of all living things

Molecule methane
Union of two or more atoms of
the same or different elements

oxygen
Atom
Smallest unit of an element composed
of electrons, protons, and neutrons
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Organism elephant tree

An individual; complex
individuals contain organ systems

Organ System nervous shoot

Composed of several organs system system
working together

Organ leaves
Composed of tissues functioning the brain
together for a specific task

Tissue
A group of cells with a common
structure and function
nervous tissue epidermal tissue

Cell nerve cell plant cell

The structural and functional
unit of all living things

methane
Molecule
Union of two or more atoms of
the same or different elements

oxygen
Atom
Smallest unit of an element composed
of electrons, protons, and neutrons
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Population
Organisms of the same
species in a particular area

Organism tree
elephant
An individual; complex
individuals contain organ systems

Organ System nervous shoot

Composed of several organs system system
working together

Organ
the brain leaves
Composed of tissues functioning
together for a specific task

Tissue
A group of cells with a common
structure and function

nervous tissue epidermal tissue

nerve cell plant cell

Cell
The structural and functional
unit of all living things

Molecule methane
Union of two or more atoms of
the same or different elements

oxygen
Atom
Smallest unit of an element composed
of electrons, protons, and neutrons
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Community
Interacting populations in a
particular area

Population
Organisms of the same
species in a particular area

Organism elephant
tree
An individual; complex
individuals contain organ systems

nervous shoot
Organ System
system system
Composed of several organs
working together

Organ leaves
Composed of tissues functioning the brain
together for a specific task

Tissue
A group of cells with a common
structure and function
nervous tissue epidermal tissue

nerve cell
Cell plant cell
The structural and functional
unit of all living things

methane
Molecule
Union of two or more atoms of
the same or different elements

oxygen
Atom
Smallest unit of an element composed
of electrons, protons, and neutrons
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Ecosystem
A community plus
the physical environment

Community
Interacting populations in a
particular area

Population
Organisms of the same
species in a particular area

Organism elephant tree

An individual; complex
individuals contain organ systems

Organ System
nervous shoot
Composed of several organs
system system
working together

Organ the brain leaves

Composed of tissues functioning
together for a specific task

Tissue
A group of cells with a common
structure and function
nervous tissue epidermal tissue

Cell nerve cell

The structural and functional
plant cell
unit of all living things

methane
Molecule
Union of two or more atoms of
the same or different elements

oxygen
Atom
Smallest unit of an element composed
of electrons, protons, and neutrons
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Biosphere
Regions of the Earth’s crust,
waters, and atmosphere
inhabited by living things

Ecosystem
A community plus
the physical environment

Community
Interacting populations in a
particular area

Population
Organisms of the same
species in a particular area

Organism elephant tree

An individual; complex
individuals contain organ systems

Organ System nervous shoot

Composed of several organs
working together
system system

Organ the brain leaves

Composed of tissues functioning
together for a specific task

Tissue
A group of cells with a common
structure and function

nervous tissue epidermal tissue

nerve cell
Cell plant cell
The structural and functional
unit of all living things

Molecule methane
Union of two or more atoms of
the same or different elements

Atom oxygen
Smallest unit of an element
composed of electrons, protons,
and neutrons
 Characteristics of Life
2. Living things acquire materials and energy.
• Energy is the ability to do work.
 Energy is required to maintain organization and
conduct life-sustaining processes such as chemical
reactions.
• Metabolism is all the chemical reactions that occur in a
cell.

 The sun is the ultimate source of energy for nearly all

life on Earth.
• Plants, algae, and some other organisms capture solar
energy and perform photosynthesis.

• Photosynthesis is a process that converts solar energy 16

into the chemical energy of carbohydrates.
 Acquiring Nutrients and Energy
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food

a. d.

e.

b. c. f.
a: © John Warden/Purestock/SuperStock RF; b:© Photodisc Blue/Getty RF; c: © Charles Bush Photography; d : © Michael 17
Abby/Visuals Unlimited; e: © Pat Pendarvis; f: National Park Service Photo
 Characteristics of Life
3. Living things maintain homeostasis.
• Homeostasis is the maintenance of internal
conditions within certain boundaries.
 Ability to maintain a state of biological balance

 Feedback systems monitor internal conditions and

make adjustments.

4. Living things respond to stimuli.

• Living things interact with the environment and
respond to changes in the environment.
 The ability to respond often produces movement. 18
 Characteristics of Life
5. Living things reproduce and develop.
• All living organisms must reproduce to maintain
a population.

• The manner of reproduction varies among

different organisms.

• When organisms reproduce, they pass on

copies of their genetic information (genes) to the
next generation.
 Genes determine the characteristics of an organism.

 Genes are composed of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid).

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 Characteristics of Life
6. Living things have adaptations.
• An adaptation is any modification that makes
an organism better able to function in a
particular environment.

• The diversity of life exists because over long

periods of time, organisms respond to changing
environments by developing new adaptations.

• Evolution is the change in a population of

organisms over time to become more suited to
the environment.

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 1.2 Evolution, the Unifying
Concept of Biology
• The theory of evolution explains the
diversity and unity of life.
 The theory of evolution suggests how all living
things descended from a common ancestor.
 Common descent with modification

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 Evolutionary Tree of Life

An evolutionary
tree is like a
family tree. An
evolutionary tree
traces the
ancestry of life on
Earth to a
common
ancestor.

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 Organizing Diversity
• Taxonomy is the branch of biology that
identifies, names, and classifies
organisms.
• Systematics is the study of evolutionary
relationships between organisms.
• Classification categories
 From least inclusive category (species) to
most inclusive category (domain):
• Species, genus, family, order, class, phylum, kingdom,
and domain
• Each successive category above species includes more
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types of organisms than the preceding one.
Levels of Classification
 Domains
• Domain Archaea
 Contains unicellular prokaryotes that live in extreme
environments
• Prokaryotes lack a membrane-bound nucleus.

• Domain Bacteria
 Contains unicellular prokaryotes that live in all
environments

• Domain Eukarya
 Contains unicellular and multicellular eukaryotes
25
• Eukaryotes contain a membrane-bound nucleus.
 Domain Archaea
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• Prokaryotic cells
of various shapes
• Adaptations to
extreme environments
• Absorb or
chemosynthesize food
• Unique chemical
characteristics

Methanosarcina mazei, an archaean 1.6 m

© Ralph Robinson/Visuals Unlimited

26
 Domain Bacteria

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• Prokaryotic cells
of various shapes
• Adaptations to
all environments
• Absorb, photosynthesize,
or chemosynthesize food
• Unique chemical
characteristics

Escherichia coli, a bacterium 1.5 m

© A.B. Dowsett/SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.

27
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Domain Eukarya: Protists

Fig. 1.8
• Algae, protozoans,

Domain
slime molds, and
water molds
• Complex single cell
(sometimes filaments,
colonies, or even

Eukarya
multicellular)
1 µm • Absorb, photosynthesize,
or ingest food
Paramecium, a unicellular protozoan

Domain Eukarya: Kingdom Fungi

• Molds, mushrooms, yeasts,

and ringworms
• Mostly multicellular filaments
with specialized, complex cells
• Absorb food

Amanita, a mushroom

Domain Eukarya: Kingdom Plantae

• Certain algae, mosses, ferns,

conifers, and flowering plants
• Multicellular, usually with
specialized tissues,
containing complex cells
• Photosynthe size food

Passiflora, passion flower, a flowering plant

Domain Eukarya: Kingdom Animalia

• Sponges, worms, insects,

fishes, frogs, turtles,
birds, and mammals
• Multicellular with
specialized tissues
containing complex cells
• Ingest food

Vulpes, a red fox

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 Kingdoms
• Domain Archaea – kingdom designations
undetermined

• Domain Bacteria - kingdom designations

undetermined

• Domain Eukarya
 Protists (composed of several kingdoms)

 Kingdom Fungi

 Kingdom Plantae

 Kingdom Animalia 30
 Scientific Names
•Universal
•Latin-based
•Binomial nomenclature
 Two-part name
 First word is the genus.
• Always capitalized
 Second word is the species designation (or specific epithet).
• Written in lowercase
 Both words are italicized.
 Examples: Homo sapiens (humans), Zea mays (corn)

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 Natural Selection
• Evolutionary mechanism proposed by Charles
Darwin
• Some aspect of the environment selects which
traits are more apt to be passed on to the next
generation.
 Individuals with the favorable traits produce the
greater number of offspring that survive and
reproduce.
 Increases the frequency of those traits in population
• Mutations fuel natural selection.
 Introduce variations among members of a population
32
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Some plants within a population exhibit variation in leaf structure.

Deer prefer a diet of smooth leaves over hairy leaves. Plants with
hairy leaves reproduce more than other plants in the population.

Generations later, most plants within the population have hairy

leaves, as smooth leaves are selected against.
 1.3 How the Biosphere Is
Organized
• The biosphere is the zone of air, land, and
water where organisms exist.
• A population is all the members of a
species within an area.
• A community is a collection of interacting
populations within the same environment.
• An ecosystem is community plus its
physical environment.
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 Ecosystems
• Ecosystems are characterized by chemical
cycling and energy flow.
 Chemicals are not used up when organisms
die.
• Chemicals move from one population to another in a
food chain.
• As a result of death and decomposition, chemicals
are returned to living plants.
 Energy from the sun flows through plants and
other members of the food chain as one
population feeds on another.
• Therefore, there must be a constant input of solar
energy. 35
 Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

heat

Chemicals Cycle
solar
energy
and Energy Flows

heat

heat

heat

heat

WASTE MATERIAL, DEATH, Chemical cycling

heat
AND DECOMPOSITION Energy flow
 The Human Population
• Ecosystems have been negatively impacted by
human populations.
 Destruction of forest or grassland for agriculture,
housing, industry
 Destruction of coastal wetlands by waste and other
pollutants
• Humans depend upon healthy ecosystems for:
 Food
 Medicines
 Raw materials
37
 The Effect of Human Activities
on Coral Reefs
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a. Healthy coral reef

1975 Minimal coral death 1985 Some coral death 1995 Coral bleaching with 2004 Coral is black from
With no fish present limited chance of recovery sedimentation; bleaching
b.
still evident

a: © Frank & Joyce Burek/Getty Images; b (All): © Dr. Phillip Dustan

38
 Biodiversity
• Biodiversity is the total number and relative
abundance of species, the variability of their
genes, and the ecosystems in which they live.
 Estimated to be as high as 15 million species
• Less than 2 million have been named and identified

• Extinction is the death of the last member of

a species or larger classification category.
 Estimates of 400 species/day lost due to human
activities
39
 1.4 The Process of Science
• The scientific method is a standard series
of steps used in gaining new knowledge
through research.
 The scientific method can be divided into four
steps:
• Observation
• Hypothesis
• Experiments and Data Collection
• Conclusion
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 The Scientific Method
1. Observation
• Scientists use their senses to gather
information about a phenomenon or natural
event.

2. Hypothesis
• A hypothesis is a tentative explanation for
what was observed.
• Developed through inductive reasoning
• Testable
41
 The Scientific Method
3. Experiments and Data Collection
• An experiment is a series of procedures
designed to test a hypothesis.
 Utilizes deductive reasoning to make a prediction
or expected outcome
• The manner in which a scientist conducts an
experiment is called the experimental
design.
 A good experimental design ensures that the
scientist is examining the contribution of a specific
factor called the experimental (independent)
variable to the observation.
• The experimental variable is the factor being tested.
42
 The Scientific Method
3. Experiments and Data Collection (cont’d)
• A test group is exposed to the experimental
variable.
• A control group goes through all aspects of
the experiment but is not exposed to the
experimental variable.
• The data are the results of an experiment.
 Should be observable and objective

43
 The Scientific Method

4. Conclusion
• The data are analyzed and interpreted to
determine whether the hypothesis is
supported or not.
 If prediction happens, hypothesis is supported.
 If not, hypothesis is rejected.
• Findings are reported in scientific journals
• Peers review the findings
• Other scientists then attempt to duplicate or
dismiss the published findings
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Flow Diagram of Scientific Method
Observation

New observations
are made, and previous
data are studied.

Hypothesis

Input from various sources

is used to formulate a
testable statement.

Experiment/Observations Conclusion

The hypothesis is The results are analyzed,

tested by experiment and the hypothesis is
or further observations. supported or rejected.

Scientific Theory

Many experiments and

observations support a
theory.
 Scientific Theory
• Scientific Theory:
 Concepts that join together two or more well-supported
and related hypotheses

 Supported by broad range of observations, experiments,

and data

• Scientific Principle / Law:

 Widely accepted set of theories

 No serious challenges to validity

46
Basic Theories of Biology

47
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Control pots Test pots Test pots

no fertilization treatment 90 kg of nitrogen/ha Pigeon pea/winter wheat rotation

20
Control Pots
= no fertilization treatment

Wheat Biomass (grams/pot)

Test Pots
15 = 45 kg of nitrogen/ha
= 90 kg of nitrogen/ha
= Pigeon pea/winter wheat rotation

a. Control pots and test pots Test pots 10

of three types 45 kg of nitrogen/ha

Using the Scientific

Method: Pigeon Pea/Winter 0
year 1 year 2 year 3

Wheat Rotation Study b. Results

(All): Courtesy Jim Bidlack