Community Ecology:

Exploring the
Intricate Web of Life
Deep in the Lembeh Strait of Indonesia, a remarkable symbiotic relationship unfolds on the
ocean floor. A carrier crab scuttles across the seabed, carrying a large spiny sea urchin on its
back as a living shield. This intriguing interaction exemplifies the intricate web of ecological
connections that bind species together in biological communities.

Community ecology delves into the complex interplay

between organisms, revealing how they interact,
compete, and coexist within their shared environments.
Ma
Interspecific Interactions: The Fabric of
Communities
1 Competition

Competition arises when individuals of

different species vie for the same limited
resources, such as food, water, or living
space. This -/- interaction can lead to the
exclusion of one species from a particular
2 Predation
niche, as demonstrated by the classic
experiments
In a predator-prey relationship (+/-), oneof G.F.
species Gause
(the predator) with
consumes the other (the
Paramecium
prey). This species.
interaction shapes the evolution of adaptations in both predators and prey, from
the acute senses of predators to the defensive mechanisms of prey species.

3 Symbiosis
Symbiosis encompasses a range of intimate interactions between species, including
parasitism (-/+), mutualism (+/+), and commensalism (+/0). These relationships can involve
complex adaptations and coevolutionary processes, as seen in the intricate partnerships
between plants and their pollinators or seed dispersers.
Interspecific Interactions: The Fabric of
Communities
2 Predation

In a predator-prey relationship (+/-), one

species (the predator) consumes the
other (the prey). This interaction shapes
the evolution of adaptations in both
3 predators and prey, from the acute
senses of predators to the defensive
mechanisms of prey species.

1 Symbiosis
Symbiosis encompasses a range of intimate interactions between species, including
parasitism (-/+), mutualism (+/+), and commensalism (+/0). These relationships can involve
complex adaptations and coevolutionary processes, as seen in the intricate partnerships
between plants and their pollinators or seed dispersers.
Interspecific Interactions: The Fabric of
Communities
3 Symbiosis

Symbiosis encompasses a range of intimate

interactions between species, including
parasitism (-/+), mutualism (+/+), and
commensalism (+/0). These relationships can
1 involve complex adaptations and
coevolutionary processes, as seen in the
intricate partnerships between plants and
their pollinators or seed dispersers.

2
Characterizing Biological Communities

Species Diversity

Species diversity encompasses

both species richness (the number
of different species) and their
relative abundance within a
community. Ecologists use various
indices, such as the Shannon
diversity index, to quantify and
compare the diversity of different
communities.
Characterizing Biological Communities

Trophic Structure

The trophic structure of a

community refers to the
feeding relationships
between organisms,
represented as food chains
and food webs. These
intricate networks illustrate
the transfer of energy and
nutrients from producers to
consumers and
decomposers, highlighting
the interdependence of
species within an ecosystem.
Community Stability and Resilience

Bottom-Up Control

The bottom-up model of

community organization posits
that lower trophic levels, such
as producers and nutrients,
control the abundance of
higher trophic levels like
herbivores and predators.
Increasing productivity at the
base of the food web can
propagate up through the
trophic levels.
Community Stability and Resilience

Top-Down Control

In contrast, the top-down

model, also known as the
trophic cascade model,
suggests that predators exert
a controlling influence on
lower trophic levels. Changes
in predator abundance can
have cascading effects on
herbivores, producers, and
nutrient levels, with
alternating positive and
negative impacts at each
level.
Disturbance and Community Dynamics
Disturbance Events
Disturbances, such as fires, floods, or human activities, can
profoundly impact community structure and composition.
The intermediate disturbance hypothesis suggests that
moderate levels of disturbance can promote greater species
diversity by creating opportunities for less competitive
species
Ecologicalto establish themselves.
Succession
After a disturbance, ecological succession describes the gradual process by which a
community changes over time, with different species replacing one another in a predictable
sequence. Primary succession occurs on newly formed, lifeless areas, while secondary
succession takes place on previously disturbed sites with existing soil.

Community Resilience
The ability of a community to recover from disturbances and maintain its structure and
function is known as resilience. Some communities, like the lodgepole pine forests of
Yellowstone National Park, are adapted to periodic disturbances and can rapidly regenerate
after events like wildfires.
Disturbance and Community Dynamics
Ecological Succession

After a disturbance, ecological succession describes the

gradual process by which a community changes over time,
with different species replacing one another in a predictable
sequence. Primary succession occurs on newly formed,
lifeless areas, while secondary succession takes place on
previously disturbed sites with existing soil.
Disturbance and Community Dynamics
Community Resilience

The ability of a community to recover from disturbances

and maintain its structure and function is known as
resilience. Some communities, like the lodgepole pine
forests of Yellowstone National Park, are adapted to
periodic disturbances and can rapidly regenerate after
events like wildfires.
 Biogeographic Patterns of Diversity
1 Latitudinal
Gradients
Species diversity tends to be
higher in tropical regions
compared to temperate and
polar regions. This pattern is
influenced by factors such as
evolutionary history, climate,
and productivity, with the
tropics generally having
longer growing seasons and
higher rates of speciation.
2 Area Effects
The species-area relationship
describes how larger
geographic areas tend to
support more species due to
a greater diversity of habitats
and resources. This principle
is fundamental in
conservation biology, as
habitat loss can lead to a
decline in species richness.
3 Island Biogeography
The island equilibrium model
explains how the species richness
of islands is determined by the
balance between immigration
and extinction rates, which are
influenced by factors like island
size and distance from the
mainland. This model has
important implications for
understanding and preserving
biodiversity in isolated habitats.
 Biogeographic Patterns of Diversity
1 Latitudinal
Gradients
Species diversity tends to be
higher in tropical regions
compared to temperate and
polar regions. This pattern is
influenced by factors such as
evolutionary history, climate,
and productivity, with the
tropics generally having
longer growing seasons and
higher rates of speciation.
2 Area Effects
The species-area relationship
describes how larger
geographic areas tend to
support more species due to
a greater diversity of habitats
and resources. This principle
is fundamental in
conservation biology, as
habitat loss can lead to a
decline in species richness.
3 Island Biogeography
The island equilibrium model
explains how the species richness
of islands is determined by the
balance between immigration
and extinction rates, which are
influenced by factors like island
size and distance from the
mainland. This model has
important implications for
understanding and preserving
biodiversity in isolated habitats.
 Biogeographic Patterns of Diversity
1 Latitudinal
Gradients
Species diversity tends to be
higher in tropical regions
compared to temperate and
polar regions. This pattern is
influenced by factors such as
evolutionary history, climate,
and productivity, with the
tropics generally having
longer growing seasons and
higher rates of speciation.
2 Area Effects
The species-area relationship
describes how larger
geographic areas tend to
support more species due to
a greater diversity of habitats
and resources. This principle
is fundamental in
conservation biology, as
habitat loss can lead to a
decline in species richness.
3 Island Biogeography
The island equilibrium model
explains how the species richness
of islands is determined by the
balance between immigration
and extinction rates, which are
influenced by factors like island
size and distance from the
mainland. This model has
important implications for
understanding and preserving
biodiversity in isolated habitats.
 The Influence of Pathogens
Emerging Diseases

Pathogens, such as viruses, bacteria,

and fungi, can have profound effects
on community structure, especially
when introduced to new habitats
where host populations lack
resistance. The spread of emerging
diseases like white-band disease in
coral reefs and sudden oak death in
California forests has led to dramatic
changes in these ecosystems.
 The Influence of Pathogens
Emerging Diseases
Pathogens, such as viruses, bacteria,
and fungi, can have profound effects
on community structure, especially
when introduced to new habitats
where host populations lack
resistance. The spread of emerging
diseases like white-band disease in
coral reefs and sudden oak death in
California forests has led to dramatic
changes in these ecosystems.
Zoonotic Diseases
Zoonotic diseases are those that can be
transmitted from animals to humans,
either directly or through vectors like
ticks or mosquitoes. Understanding
the community interactions and host-
pathogen dynamics is crucial for
tracking and controlling the spread of
these diseases, such as Lyme disease
and avian influenza.
 The Influence of Pathogens

Ecosystem Perspective

Controlling pathogens and the diseases they cause requires an ecosystem

perspective, considering how pathogens interact with other species and the
physical environment. Community ecology provides the foundation for
understanding these complex interactions and developing effective management
strategies.
 Keystone Species and Ecosystem Engineers
Keystone Species
Keystone species, like the sea
star Pisaster ochraceus, exert
a disproportionately large
influence on community
structure relative to their
abundance. Their presence or
absence can dramatically
alter the diversity and
composition of a community.
Ecosystem Engineers
Ecosystem engineers, such as
beavers, modify their physical
environment in ways that
create or destroy habitats for
other species. Their activities
can have cascading effects on
the entire community,
shaping its structure and
dynamics.
Foundation Species
Foundation species, like certain
tree species in a forest, provide
the physical structure and
resources that support entire
communities. Their presence or
absence can profoundly impact
the diversity and composition of
associated species.
 Keystone Species and Ecosystem Engineers
Keystone Species
Keystone species, like the sea
star Pisaster ochraceus, exert
a disproportionately large
influence on community
structure relative to their
abundance. Their presence or
absence can dramatically
alter the diversity and
composition of a community.
Ecosystem Engineers
Ecosystem engineers, such as
beavers, modify their physical
environment in ways that
create or destroy habitats for
other species. Their activities
can have cascading effects on
the entire community,
shaping its structure and
dynamics.
Foundation Species
Foundation species, like certain
tree species in a forest, provide
the physical structure and
resources that support entire
communities. Their presence or
absence can profoundly impact
the diversity and composition of
associated species.
 Keystone Species and Ecosystem Engineers
Keystone Species
Keystone species, like the sea
star Pisaster ochraceus, exert
a disproportionately large
influence on community
structure relative to their
abundance. Their presence or
absence can dramatically
alter the diversity and
composition of a community.
Ecosystem Engineers
Ecosystem engineers, such as
beavers, modify their physical
environment in ways that
create or destroy habitats for
other species. Their activities
can have cascading effects on
the entire community,
shaping its structure and
dynamics.
Foundation Species
Foundation species, like certain
tree species in a forest, provide
the physical structure and
resources that support entire
communities. Their presence or
absence can profoundly impact
the diversity and composition of
associated species.
Measuring and Manipulating Diversity
Experimental
Manipulations
Ecologists conduct experiments
to manipulate diversity in
natural and controlled settings,
such as the long-term studies at
the Cedar Creek Ecosystem
Science Reserve. These
experiments allow researchers to
investigate the effects of
diversity on productivity,
stability, and resistance to
invasive species.
Molecular Tools
Advances in molecular
techniques, such as DNA
barcoding and metagenomic
sequencing, have revolutionized
the study of microbial diversity.
These tools enable researchers
to identify and quantify the vast
diversity of microorganisms in
environmental samples,
providing insights into their roles
in community dynamics.
Remote Sensing
Remote sensing technologies,
including satellite imagery and
aerial surveys, allow ecologists
to map and monitor biodiversity
patterns across large geographic
areas. These tools are invaluable
for studying the effects of
habitat loss, climate change, and
other factors on community
diversity at regional and global
scales.
Measuring and Manipulating Diversity
Experimental
Manipulations
Ecologists conduct experiments to
manipulate diversity in natural and
controlled settings, such as the
long-term studies at the Cedar
Creek Ecosystem Science Reserve.
These experiments allow
researchers to investigate the
effects of diversity on productivity,
stability, and resistance to invasive
species.
Molecular Tools
Advances in molecular techniques,
such as DNA barcoding and
metagenomic sequencing, have
revolutionized the study of
microbial diversity. These tools
enable researchers to identify and
quantify the vast diversity of
microorganisms in environmental
samples, providing insights into
their roles in community dynamics.
Remote Sensing
Remote sensing technologies,
including satellite imagery and
aerial surveys, allow ecologists
to map and monitor biodiversity
patterns across large geographic
areas. These tools are invaluable
for studying the effects of
habitat loss, climate change, and
other factors on community
diversity at regional and global
scales.
Measuring and Manipulating Diversity
Experimental
Manipulations
Ecologists conduct experiments to
manipulate diversity in natural and
controlled settings, such as the
long-term studies at the Cedar
Creek Ecosystem Science Reserve.
These experiments allow
researchers to investigate the
effects of diversity on productivity,
stability, and resistance to invasive
species.
Molecular Tools
Advances in molecular techniques,
such as DNA barcoding and
metagenomic sequencing, have
revolutionized the study of
microbial diversity. These tools
enable researchers to identify and
quantify the vast diversity of
microorganisms in environmental
samples, providing insights into
their roles in community dynamics.
Remote Sensing
Remote sensing technologies,
including satellite imagery and
aerial surveys, allow ecologists
to map and monitor biodiversity
patterns across large geographic
areas. These tools are invaluable
for studying the effects of habitat
loss, climate change, and other
factors on community diversity
at regional and global scales.
Conservation and Management Implications
Threat Impact
Reduced species richness
Habitat Loss and diversity due to the
loss of suitable habitats
and resources.
Disruption of native
Invasive Species communities,
displacement of native
species, and alteration of
ecosystem processes.
Shifts in species
Climate Change distributions, disruption of
ecological interactions, and
potential loss of biodiversity.
Depletion of populations,
disruption of food webs,
Overexploitation and potential ecosystem
collapse.
Management Strategy
Establish protected areas,
restore degraded habitats,
and implement sustainable
land-use practices.
Prevent introductions, early
detection and rapid response,
control and eradication
programs, and restoration of
impacted areas.
Facilitate species migration,
protect and restore habitat
corridors, and implement climate
adaptation strategies.
Sustainable harvesting practices,
quotas, and regulations based on
ecological data and monitoring.
Conservation and Management Implications
Threat Impact
Reduced species richness
Habitat Loss and diversity due to the
loss of suitable habitats
and resources.
Disruption of native
Invasive Species communities,
displacement of native
species, and alteration of
ecosystem processes.
Shifts in species
Climate Change distributions, disruption of
ecological interactions, and
potential loss of biodiversity.
Depletion of populations,
disruption of food webs,
Overexploitation and potential ecosystem
collapse.
Management Strategy
Establish protected areas,
restore degraded habitats,
and implement sustainable
land-use practices.
Prevent introductions, early
detection and rapid response,
control and eradication
programs, and restoration of
impacted areas.
Facilitate species migration,
protect and restore habitat
corridors, and implement climate
adaptation strategies.
Sustainable harvesting practices,
quotas, and regulations based on
ecological data and monitoring.
Conservation and Management Implications
Threat Impact
Reduced species richness
Habitat Loss and diversity due to the
loss of suitable habitats
and resources.
Disruption of native
Invasive Species communities,
displacement of native
species, and alteration of
ecosystem processes.
Shifts in species
Climate Change distributions, disruption of
ecological interactions, and
potential loss of biodiversity.
Depletion of populations,
disruption of food webs,
Overexploitation and potential ecosystem
collapse.
Management Strategy
Establish protected areas,
restore degraded habitats,
and implement sustainable
land-use practices.
Prevent introductions, early
detection and rapid response,
control and eradication
programs, and restoration of
impacted areas.
Facilitate species migration,
protect and restore habitat
corridors, and implement climate
adaptation strategies.
Sustainable harvesting practices,
quotas, and regulations based on
ecological data and monitoring.
Conservation and Management Implications
Threat Impact
Reduced species richness
Habitat Loss and diversity due to the
loss of suitable habitats
and resources.
Disruption of native
Invasive Species communities,
displacement of native
species, and alteration of
ecosystem processes.
Shifts in species
Climate Change distributions, disruption of
ecological interactions, and
potential loss of biodiversity.
Depletion of populations,
disruption of food webs,
Overexploitation and potential ecosystem
collapse.
Management Strategy
Establish protected areas,
restore degraded habitats,
and implement sustainable
land-use practices.
Prevent introductions, early
detection and rapid response,
control and eradication
programs, and restoration of
impacted areas.
Facilitate species migration,
protect and restore habitat
corridors, and implement climate
adaptation strategies.
Sustainable harvesting practices,
quotas, and regulations based on
ecological data and monitoring.
Predator-Prey Relationships

Predator-Prey Dynamics
1 Interactions driving population dynamics.

Impact on Ecosystem
2
Influence on community structure and stability.

Co-evolution
3
Mutual adaptation of predator and prey species.
Predator-Prey Relationships

Predator-Prey Dynamics
1 Interactions driving population dynamics.

Impact on Ecosystem
2
Influence on community structure and stability.

Co-evolution
3
Mutual adaptation of predator and prey species.
Predator-Prey Relationships

Predator-Prey Dynamics
1 Interactions driving population dynamics.

Impact on Ecosystem
2
Influence on community structure and stability.

Co-evolution
3
Mutual adaptation of predator and prey species.
Impact of Climate Change on Community Ecology

Stressed Ecosystems Endangered Species Freshwater Scarcity

Climate change leads The melting polar ice caps pose Climate change affects
to stressed ecosystems a threat to species like polar freshwater resources, posing
with visible impacts on bears, emphasizing the urgency survival challenges for aquatic
vegetation, soil, and of combating climate change. species in increasingly arid
overall biodiversity. landscapes.
Impact of Climate Change on Community
Ecology

Stressed Ecosystems Endangered Species Freshwater Scarcity

Climate change leads The melting polar ice Climate change affects
to stressed ecosystems caps pose a threat to freshwater resources, posing
with visible impacts on species like polar survival challenges for aquatic
vegetation, soil, and bears, emphasizing the species in increasingly arid
overall biodiversity. urgency of combating landscapes.
climate change.
Impact of Climate Change on Community
Ecology

Stressed Ecosystems Endangered Species Freshwater Scarcity

Climate change leads The melting polar ice Climate change affects
to stressed ecosystems caps pose a threat to freshwater resources,
with visible impacts on species like polar posing survival
vegetation, soil, and bears, emphasizing the challenges for aquatic
overall biodiversity. urgency of combating species in increasingly
climate change. arid landscapes.
Human impact on communities

Habitat Destruction Aquatic Pollution

Urban development leads to Pollution in aquatic ecosystems leads
diminishing natural landscapes and to murky water and distress among
harsh artificial lighting, impacting marine life, endangering aquatic
wildlife habitats. communities.
Human impact on communities

Habitat Destruction Aquatic Pollution

Urban development leads to Pollution in aquatic ecosystems leads
diminishing natural landscapes and to murky water and distress among
harsh artificial lighting, impacting marine life, endangering aquatic
wildlife habitats. communities.
Succession in communities
Natural Progression
Communities develop and
change over time.

Primary Succession
Occurs in new, barren environments.

Secondary Succession
Follows disturbance in an existing ecosystem.