ELE 324:

DEVICE ELECTRONICS II
T.C.B Nammelo

Unit 3 Oscillators
 Contents:
 12-1 Introduction
 12-2 Classifications of Oscillators
 12-3 Circuit Analysis of a General Oscillator
 12-4 Conditions for Oscillation: Barkhausen- Criteria
 12-5 Tuned Oscillator
 12-6 Crystal Oscillator
 12-7 Applications of Oscillators
Objectives:
 In this chapter we will explore the working principle of the
oscillator. Generally speaking, the oscillator produces sinusoidal and
other waveforms.
 Beginning with a detailed circuit analysis of the oscillator, we will
proceed to discuss the conditions and frequency of oscillation.
 Following this, the different types of oscillators—Tuned
oscillator, Hartley oscillator, Colpitts oscillator, Clapp
oscillator, Phase-shift oscillator, Crystal oscillator and
Wien-bridge oscillator—will be examined with detailed
mathematical analysis and illustrations.
 The chapter ends with an overview of the applications of the
oscillator.
INTRODUCTION:
 An oscillator is an electronic system.
 It comprises active and passive circuit elements and
sinusoidal produces repetitive waveforms at the output without the
application of a direct external input signal to the circuit.
 It converts the dc power from the source to ac power in the
load. A rectifier circuit converts ac to dc power, but an oscillator converts dc
noise signal/power to its ac equivalent.
 The general form of a harmonic oscillator is an electronic
amplifier with the output attached to a narrow-band electronic filter, and the
output of the filter attached to the input of the amplifier.
 In this chapter, the oscillator analysis is done in two methods
—first by a general analysis, considering all other circuits are the special
form of a common generalized circuit and second, using the individual
circuit KVL analysis.
INTRODUCTION:
 These signals serve a variety of purposes.
 Communications systems, digital systems (including
computers), and test equipment make use of
oscillators
Oscillators
Oscillation: an effect that repeatedly and
regularly fluctuates about the mean value

Oscillator: circuit that produces oscillation

Characteristics: wave-shape, frequency,

amplitude, distortion, stability
Application of Oscillators
 Oscillators are used to generate signals, e.g.
 Used as a local oscillator to transform the RF
signals to IF signals in a receiver;
 Used to generate RF carrier in a transmitter
 Used to generate clocks in digital systems;
 Used as sweep circuits in TV sets and CRO.

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 An oscillator is a circuit that produces a repetitive signal
from a dc voltage.
 The feedback oscillator relies on a positive feedback of
the output to maintain the oscillations.
 The relaxation oscillator makes use of an RC timing
circuit to generate a nonsinusoidal signal such as square
wave
Sine wave

Square wave

Sawtooth wave

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How does the oscillation get started?
 Noise signals and the transients associated with the
circuit turning on provide the initial source signal that
initiate the oscillation

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Difference between an
amplifier and an oscillator:
CLASSIFICATIONS OF
OSCILLATORS:
 Oscillators are classified based on the type of the output
waveform.
 If the generated waveform is sinusoidal or close to sinusoidal
(with a certain frequency) then the oscillator is said to be a Sinusoidal
Oscillator.
If the output waveform is non-sinusoidal, which refers to
square/saw-tooth waveforms, the oscillator is said to be a
Relaxation Oscillator.
 An oscillator has a positive feedback with the loop gain
infinite. Feedback-type sinusoidal oscillators can be classified as LC
(inductor-capacitor) and RC (resistor-capacitor) oscillators.
Types of oscillators
1. RC oscillators
 Wien Bridge
 Phase-Shift
2. LC oscillators
 Hartley
 Colpitts
 Crystal
3. Unijunction / relaxation oscillators

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CLASSIFICATIONS OF
OSCILLATORS:
 The classification of various oscillators is shown in Table 12-1.
CIRCUIT ANALYSIS OF A GENERAL
OSCILLATOR:
 This section discusses the general oscillator circuit with a simple
generalized analysis using the transistor, as shown in Fig. 12-2.
 An impedance z1 is connected between the base B and the emitter
E, an impedance z2 is connected between the collector C and emitter E. To
apply a positive feedback z3 is connected between the collector and the
base terminal.
 All the other different oscillators can be analyzed as a special case of
the generalized analysis of oscillator.
CIRCUIT ANALYSIS OF A GENERAL
OSCILLATOR:
 The above generalized circuit of an oscillator is considered using a simple transistor-equivalent
circuit model. The current voltage expressions are expressed as follows:
CIRCUIT ANALYSIS OF A GENERAL OSCILLATOR:
CIRCUIT ANALYSIS OF A GENERAL
OSCILLATOR:
CIRCUIT ANALYSIS OF A GENERAL
OSCILLATOR:
CIRCUIT ANALYSIS OF A GENERAL
OSCILLATOR:
Hartley Oscillator:
Hartley Oscillator:
Colpitts Oscillator:
Colpitts Oscillator:
Colpitts Oscillator:
Phase-Shift Oscillator:
Phase-Shift Oscillator:
Phase-Shift Oscillator:
Phase-Shift Oscillator:
Phase-Shift Oscillator:
Phase-Shift Oscillator:
Wien-Bridge Oscillator:
Wien-Bridge Oscillator:
Wien-Bridge Oscillator:
Circuit Diagram of Wien-Bridge Oscillator:
Wien-Bridge Oscillator:
Wien-Bridge Oscillator:

 Advantages of Wien-Bridge Oscillator:

 1. The frequency of oscillation can be easily varied just by changing RC
network
 2. High gain due to two-stage amplifier
 3. Stability is high

 Disadvantages of Wien-Bridge Oscillator

 The main disadvantage of the Wien-bridge oscillator is that a high frequency
of oscillation cannot be generated.
CONDITIONS FOR OSCILLATION:
BARKHAUSEN CRITERIA
Nyquist Criterion for
Oscillation:
 Nyquist criterion states that if this closed curve passes through or
encloses the point (1 + j0), the amplifier becomes unstable and oscillates.
 It is important to note that a positive feedback amplifier will not oscillate
unless the Nyquist criterion is satisfied.
 In the steady state condition the loop gain becomes unity and the
oscillations are sustained, the frequency of oscillations is controlled by the
frequency-determining network of the oscillator.
 The RC and a LC combination circuits are used in oscillators to serve
as the frequency-determining network.
 Let us summarize the key necessities of a feedback oscillator.
1. Amplifier with positive feedback produces a negative resistance in the
system.
2. A frequency-determining network creates oscillations at certain required
frequencies.
3. System non-linearity introduced by the devices contain the amplitude of
oscillation.
Nyquist Criterion for
Oscillation:
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF TUNED OSCILLATOR:
Tuned Oscillator:
 The circuit diagram of a tuned oscillator is shown in Fig. 12-10(a). The emitter by pass
capacitor CE shunts the ac so that RE is omitted from the ac equivalent circuit of Fig. 12-10(b).
 The dc operating point of the transistor is determined by the resistances R1, R2 and RE,
and supply voltage. The transistor gives a phase-shift of 1800.

Circuit Analysis of Tuned Oscillator:

Circuit Analysis of Tuned Oscillator:
Circuit Analysis of Tuned Oscillator:
 CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR:
 Crystal oscillator is most commonly used oscillator with high-frequency stability. They are
used for laboratory experiments, communication circuits and biomedical instruments. They are usually, fixed
frequency oscillators where stability and accuracy are the primary considerations.
 In order to design a stable and accurate LC oscillator for the upper HF and higher frequencies
it is absolutely necessary to have a crystal control; hence, the reason for crystal oscillators.
 Crystal oscillators are oscillators where the primary frequency determining element is a quartz
crystal. Because of the inherent characteristics of the quartz crystal the crystal oscillator may be held to
extreme accuracy of frequency stability. Temperature
 compensation may be applied to crystal oscillators to improve thermal stability of the crystal oscillator.

 The crystal size and cut determine the values of L, C, R and C'. The resistance R is the friction
of the vibrating crystal, capacitance C is the compliance, and inductance L is the equivalent mass. The
capacitance C' is the electrostatic capacitance between the mounted pair of electrodes with the crystal as the
dielectric.
Circuit Diagram of CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR:
Circuit Diagram of CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR:
Circuit Analysis of CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR:
APPLICATIONS OF
OSCILLATORS:
 Oscillators are a common element of almost all electronic circuits. They are
used in various applications, and their use makes it possible for circuits and
subsystems to perform numerous useful functions.
 In oscillator circuits, oscillation usually builds up from zero when power is
first applied under linear circuit operation.
 The oscillator’s amplitude is kept from building up by limiting the amplifier
saturation and various non-linear effects.
 Oscillator design and simulation is a complicated process. It is also
extremely important and crucial to design a good and stable oscillator.
 Oscillators are commonly used in communication circuits. All the
communication circuits for different modulation techniques—AM, FM, PM—the use of
an oscillator is must.
 Oscillators are used as stable frequency sources in a variety of electronic
applications.
 Oscillator circuits are used in computer peripherals, counters, timers,
calculators, phase-locked loops, digital multi-metres, oscilloscopes, and numerous
other applications.
Voltage-Controlled Oscillator:
 A common oscillator implementation is the voltage-controlled
oscillator (VCO) circuit, where an input tuning voltage is applied to an oscillator circuit
and the tuning voltage adjusted to set the frequency at which the circuit oscillates.
 The VCO is the most widely used oscillator circuit and it produces an
oscillatory output voltage.
 It provides a periodic signal, where the frequency of the periodic signal is
related to the level of an input voltage control signal supplied to the VCO.
 A VCO is simply an oscillator having a frequency output that is proportional
to an applied voltage.
 The centre frequency of a VCO is the frequency of the periodic output
signal formed by the VCO when the input
control voltage is set to a nominal level.
 Cascode Crystal Oscillator:
 The cascode crystal oscillator is composed of a Colpitts crystal
oscillator and a base-common buffer amplifier in mobile circuits.
 In the cascode crystal oscillator, a temparature-independent voltage
source biases the buffer amplifier and the bypass capaciter gets eliminated.
 GSM phones, set-top boxes and digital audio broadcasting
equipments use oscillators. and digital audio roadcasting equipment use
oscillators.
POINTS TO REMEMBER:
 1. Oscillator converts dc to ac.
 2. Oscillator has no input signal.
 3. Oscillator behaviour is opposite to that of a rectifier.
 4. The conditions and frequencies of oscillation are classified as:
IMPORTANT FORMULAE:
 STUDENTS TO READ MORE ON:
CONFIGURATIONs
JFET SELF-BIAS CONFIGURATION
JFET VOLTAGE-DIVIDER CONFIGURATION
JFET SOURCE-FOLLOWER (COMMON-DRAIN) CONFIGURATION
JFET COMMON-GATE CONFIGURATION

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