Computer Network

Lecture 3
 Switching
• An internet is a switched network in which a
switch connects at least two links together

• A switch needs to forward data from a

network to another network when required

1. circuit-switched and
2. packet-switched networks
 Circuit-Switched Network
• a dedicated connection, called a circuit, is
always available between the two end systems
– switch can only make it active or inactive
 Packet-Switched Network
• communication between the two ends is done in
blocks of data called packets
• switches function for both storing and forwarding
– packet is an independent entity
 1-3 THE INTERNET

The Internet has revolutionized many aspects of our daily

lives.

It has affected the way we do business as well as the

way we spend our leisure time.

The Internet is a communication system that has

brought a wealth of information to our fingertips and
organized it for our use.
The Internet today
• backbones are large networks owned by some communication
companies
– It is connected through some complex switching systems, called
peering points

• Second level, there are smaller networks, called provider

networks, that use the services of the backbones for a fee
– It is connected to backbones OR other provider networks

• Customer networks are networks at the edge of the Internet

that actually use the services

• Backbones and provider networks are also called Internet

Service Providers (ISPs).
– backbones are often referred to as international ISPs;
– the provider networks are national or regional ISPs.
Hierarchical organization of the Internet
 Accessing the Internet

• Needs to be physically connected to an ISP

– normally done through a point-to-point WAN

1. Using Telephone Networks

– Dial-up service (slow)
• modem that converts data to voice
– DSL Service
• allows the line to be used simultaneously for voice and
data communication
2. Using Cable Networks (fast)
– cable companies uses their cable networks to
provide the Internet
– depends on the total users

3. Using Wireless Networks

– Internet through a wireless WAN

4. Direct Connection to the Internet

– University creates an internetwork and then connect
the internetwork to the Internet
 Internet History

• brief history makes it clear how the Internet has

evolved from a private network to a global one in less
than 40 years.

Early History
• telegraph and telephone networks, before 1960
– suitable for constant-rate communication
– the encoded message (telegraphy) or
– voice (telephony) could be exchanged
– A computer network able to handle bursty data at
variable rates
 Cont’d

Birth of Packet-Switched Networks

• Theory for bursty traffic: in 1961 at MIT

ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency)

ARPANET), a small network of connected computers
– Computers from different manufacturers were able to
communicate with one another via a specialized computer
interface message processor (IMP)
– Software called the Network Control Protocol (NCP)
provided communication between the hosts
 Birth of the Internet

• Many problems to overcome

– diverse packet sizes,
– diverse interfaces, and
– diverse transmission rates, as well as differing reliability
requirements

• Cerf and Kahn devised the idea of a device called a

gateway (hardware to transfer data from one
network to another)
 TCP/IP
• protocols to achieve end-to-end delivery of data
• new version of NCP

• Split TCP into two protocols:

– Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
• responsible for higher level functions such as
segmentation, reassembly, and error detection
– Internet Protocol (IP)
• handle datagram routing while TCP would be

• In 1983, authorities abolished the original ARPANET protocols,

– TCP/IP became the official protocol for the ARPANET
 Standards
• An Internet standard is a thoroughly tested
specification that is
– useful to and
– adhered to by those who work with the Internet

Administration
– Various groups that coordinate Internet issues
have guided this growth and development
Administration
• Internet Society (ISOC) is an international, nonprofit
organization formed in 1992 to provide support for the
Internet standards process
– Supporting other Internet administrative bodies such as
IAB, IETF, IRTF, and IANA

• Internet Architecture Board (IAB) is the technical advisor to

the ISOC
– oversee the continuing development of the TCP/IP
– Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
• protocols, routing, network management next
generation (IPng), and security
– the Internet Research Task Force (IRTF)
• Internet protocols, applications, architecture, and technology
Protocols
A protocol is synonymous with rule.

It consists of a set of rules that govern data communications.

It determines what is communicated, how it is communicated and

when it is communicated.

The key elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics and timing

Elements of a Protocol
• Syntax
– Structure or format of the data
– Indicates how to read the bits - field delineation

• Semantics
– Interprets the meaning of the bits
– Knows which fields define what action

• Timing
– When data should be sent and
– What Speed at which data should be sent or speed at which it
is being received.
 Questions
1. What are the primary responsibilities of a network
administrator, and how do they contribute to the overall
functionality and security of a computer network?
2. What are the elements of protocol and how do they
contribute in a network?
3. What is the full form of TCP, IP and ARPANET?
4. What are the various methods to access internet?
5. How does internet function from a top down perspective?
6. From what year the internet started to take shape and
what were the various inventions that shaped internet in
what it is today?
 THE OSI MODEL
Established in 1947, the International Standards
Organization (ISO) is a multinational body dedicated to
worldwide agreement on international standards. An ISO
standard that covers all aspects of network
communications is the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
model. It was first introduced in the late 1970s.
Seven layers of the OSI model
The interaction between layers in the OSI model
An exchange using the OSI model
Physical layer
Physical layer

The physical layer is responsible for movements of

individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.
 Functions of Physical layer

• Physical Characteristics : how devices are connected to a transmission

medium such as Ethernet or radio waves
• Representation of Bits: Determines how bits are converted from 0s and 1s
to a signal.
• Data rate: Determines how fast the data flows, in bits per second.
• Synchronization of bits: Ensures that sending and receiving devices are
synchronized.
• Line Configuration : Defines the way how two or more devices can be
connected physically.
• Physical Topology : Defines the way how network devices are arranged.
• Transmission Mode : whether it is simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex
mode between the two devices on the network.
Data link layer
Data link layer

The data link layer is responsible for moving

frames from one hop (node) to the next.
 Functions of Data link layer

• Framing: The data link layer translates the physical's raw bit stream into
packets known as Frames.
• Physical Addressing: The Data link layer adds a header to the frame that
contains a destination address.
• Flow Control: technique through which the constant data rate is
maintained on both the sides so that no data get corrupted.
• Error Control: achieved by adding a calculated value CRC (Cyclic
Redundancy Check) that is placed to the Data link layer's trailer which is
added to the message frame before it is sent to the physical layer.
• Access Control: When two or more devices are connected to the same
communication channel, then the data link layer protocols are used to
determine which device has control over the link at a given time.
Hop-to-hop delivery
Network layer
Network layer

The network layer is responsible for the

delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.
 Network layer

• Logical Addressing: A Network layer adds the

source and destination address to the header
of the frame. Addressing is used to identify
the device on the internet.
• Routing: Routing is the major component of
the network layer, and it determines the best
optimal path out of the multiple paths from
source to the destination.
Source-to-destination delivery
Transport layer
Transport layer

The transport layer is responsible for the delivery

of a message from one process to another.
 Transport layer
• Service-point Addressing: transmit the message to the correct process.
• Segmentation and Reassembly: Divides the message into multiple
segments, and each segment is assigned with a sequence number that
uniquely identifies each segment. When the message has arrived at the
destination, then the transport layer reassembles the message based on
their sequence numbers.
• Connection Control: A connectionless service treats each segment as an
individual packet, and they all travel in different routes to reach the
destination. A connection-oriented service makes a connection with the
transport layer at the destination machine before delivering the packets.
• Flow Control: The transport layer also responsible for flow control but it is
performed end-to-end rather than across a single link.
• Error Control: Error control is performed end-to-end rather than across
the single link.
Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message
Session layer
Session layer

The session layer is responsible for dialog

control and synchronization.
 Session layer

• Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog controller that

creates a dialog between two processes or we can say that it
allows the communication between two processes which can
be either half-duplex or full-duplex.
• Synchronization: Session layer adds some checkpoints when
transmitting the data in a sequence. If some error occurs in
the middle of the transmission of data, then the transmission
will take place again from the checkpoint. This process is
known as Synchronization and recovery.
Presentation layer
Presentation layer

The presentation layer is responsible for translation,

compression, and encryption.
 Presentation layer
• Translation: Different computers use different encoding
methods, the presentation layer handles the interoperability
between the different encoding methods.
• Encryption: a process of converting the sender-transmitted
information into another form and sends the resulting
message over the network.
• Compression: it reduces the number of bits to be transmitted.
Data compression is very important in multimedia such as
text, audio, video.
Application layer
Application layer

The application layer is responsible for

providing services to the user.
 Application layer

• Network Virtual Terminal

• File Transfer, Access and management: allows a user
to access the files in a remote computer, to retrieve
the files from a computer and to manage the files in
a remote computer.
• Mail Services: provides the facility for email
forwarding and storage.
• Directory Services: rovides the distributed database
sources and is used to provide that global
information about various objects.
Summary of layers
 Questions
1. Explain the purpose and significance of the OSI model in computer networking.
2. What are the seven layers of the OSI model, and can you briefly describe the primary
functions of each layer?
3. How does the OSI model aid in understanding and implementing network protocols and
communication?
4. Describe the process of communication between adjacent layers in the OSI model and how
information is exchanged.
5. What is the role of the Protocol Data Unit (PDU) in facilitating communication between
different layers of the OSI model?
6. Provide examples of protocols associated with each layer in the OSI model and explain their
specific functions.
7. Discuss the fundamental characteristics and responsibilities of the Physical Layer in the OSI
model.
8. How does the Data Link Layer ensure reliable point-to-point communication within a
network?
9. Explain the primary function of the Network Layer in the OSI model and its role in routing
data across different networks.