How do we represent the meaning of a word?

Lexical semantics
 What do you think gives meaning to sentences?

● Words, grammar, and sentence structure.

How do we represent the meaning of A sentence?
Compositional semantics
 Compositionality
It is the property that the meaning of a whole is a define
by the meaning of its parts.
 Compositionality

● Compositionality refers to how the

meaning of a sentence is derived
from its parts and their
arrangement.
● Think of language like a puzzle—
each word is a piece that
contributes to the overall picture.
● Why do you think understanding
each piece is crucial for grasping
the sentence as a whole?
 Language as a Compositional System

● A language is compositional if the meaning of sentences is

predictable from the meanings of its words and their syntactic
combination.
● This predictability allows us to understand new sentences we've
never heard before.
● Can you think of a sentence you understood immediately, even
though it was new to you?
 Basic Terminology
● Constituent Parts: The individual words or smaller phrases that make up a
larger expression. (e.g., "red car" - "red" and "car" are constituents)
● Semantic Interpretation: The process of assigning meaning to a complex
expression based on the meanings of its parts and their arrangement.
● Lexical Semantics: The study of word meaning.
● Syntax: The rules governing how words are combined to form grammatically
correct sentences.
 Breakdown
● "The student carefully reviewed the complex paper.“
● Identifying Constituent Parts:
● The - definite article (indicates a specific student)
● Student - noun (person engaged in learning)
● Carefully - adverb (modifies the verb "reviewed")
● Reviewed - verb (past tense, describes the action of examining something
closely)
● The - definite article (indicates a specific paper)
● Complex - adjective (describes the nature of the paper, potentially difficult or
intricate)
● Paper - noun (a document written on sheets)
Building the Overall Meaning
● By combining these parts and following the syntactic structure (subject-verb-
object),
This means:
● “A particular student thoroughly examined a document that is intricate or
challenging.”
● This breakdown demonstrates how compositional semantics allows us to
move from the meaning of individual words to the meaning of the entire
sentence by considering how they are put together.
Systematic Rules — Syntax
● Meaning arises from the combination of parts, systematic rules (syntax) that govern how
words can be combined to create grammatically correct and meaningful sentences.
1. Word Order:
● The order of words in a sentence can significantly impact meaning. Here are some
examples:
● Subject-Verb-Object (SVO) Order: common word order in English (e.g., "The dog
chased the cat"). The subject (“dog”) the action (“chased”) & the object ("cat"). Changing
the order can alter the meaning (e.g., "The cat chased the dog" - the object becomes the
subject performing the action).
● Verb Phrase Structure: Rules dictate how verbs can be combined with auxiliaries
(helping verbs) and adverbs to form a complete verb phrase (e.g., "had been carefully
studying").
 AGREEMENT
● Subject-Verb Agreement: Verbs agree with their subjects in number
(singular/plural). For example, "The student reads a book" (singular subject -
singular verb) vs. "The students read books" (plural subject - plural verb).

● Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement: Pronouns must refer back to their

antecedents (the noun they replace) and agree in gender and number. For
example, "The girl finished her homework. She was proud." (Both "she" and
"girl" are singular feminine).
 Challenges to Compositionality
● Idioms and context-sensitive expressions present challenges to
compositionality.
● "Spill the beans" doesn't mean to literally spill beans—idioms have meanings
beyond their individual words. kick the bucket" (meaning to die)
● How do idioms and context affect your interpretation of sentences?
Exercise
Analyze the following sentences using compositional semantics. Identify the constituent
parts, explain their individual meanings, and discuss how they combine to create the
overall meaning of the sentence. Consider any potential ambiguity or figurative
language.
● News Article: "The government announced a new initiative to combat climate change."
● Literary Work (Jane Eyre by Charlotte Brontë): "There was a certain stillness in her aspect, which
struck me as peculiar at first." (Source: Jane Eyre, Chapter 3)
● News Article: "Scientists discovered a new species of deep-sea fish with bioluminescent scales."
● Social Media Post: "Feeling overwhelmed by deadlines today!"
● Literary Work (Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen): "It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a
single man in possession of a good fortune, must be in want of a wife." (Source: Pride and Prejudice,
Chapter 1)
● News Article: "The heavy rain caused widespread flooding in the city."
● Movie Quote (The Godfather): "I'm gonna make him an offer he can't refuse." (Source: The
Godfather)
● Instruction Manual: "Carefully assemble the furniture according to the included instructions."
● Scientific Paper: "The research team analyzed the impact of deforestation on local wildlife
populations."
● Social Media Post: "Time flies when you're having fun!"
"The government announced a new initiative to combat climate change."

● Constituent Parts: The / government / announced / a new / initiative / to combat /

climate change.
● Meanings: The (definite article) - government (a ruling body) - announced (verb,
made something known publicly) - a new (adjective) - initiative (noun, a new plan or
effort) - to combat (verb, to fight against) - climate change (noun, a long-term
alteration of temperature and typical weather patterns in a place).
● Overall Meaning: The sentence informs us that the government has publicly
revealed a new plan to fight against climate change.
"There was a certain stillness in her aspect, which struck me as peculiar at first."

● Constituent Parts: There / was / a certain / stillness / in / her / aspect /, / which /

struck / me / as / peculiar / at first.
● Meanings: There (adverb) - was (verb, existed) - a certain (adjective, some
unspecified) - stillness (noun, lack of movement or activity) - in (preposition) - her
(possessive pronoun) - aspect (noun, appearance or manner) - , (comma) - which
(relative pronoun) - struck (verb, surprised) - me (pronoun, first person singular) - as
(preposition) - peculiar (adjective, strange or odd) - at first (adverbial phrase,
initially).
● Overall Meaning: The sentence describes the narrator's initial observation of a
woman who seemed unusually still or motionless in her demeanor.
"Scientists discovered a new species of deep-sea fish with bioluminescent scales."

● Constituent Parts: Scientists / discovered / a new / species / of / deep-sea / fish / with /

bioluminescent / scales.
● Meanings: Scientists (plural noun, people who study science) - discovered (verb, found
something new) - a new (adjective) - species (noun, a group of living organisms that can
reproduce with each other) - of (preposition) - deep-sea (adjective, relating to the deep
parts of the ocean) - fish (noun, a swimming vertebrate animal with gills) - with
(preposition) - bioluminescent (adjective, emitting light) - scales (noun, the hard,
overlapping plates that cover the skin of a fish).
● Overall Meaning: The sentence reports that scientists have found a previously unknown
type of fish that lives in the deep ocean and has the ability to produce its own light.
“Feeling overwhelmed by deadlines today!"
● Constituent Parts: Feeling / overwhelmed / by / deadlines / today!
● Meanings: Feeling (present participle, experiencing an emotion) - overwhelmed
(adjective, feeling burdened or suffocated) - by (preposition) - deadlines (plural noun,
times by which a task must be completed) - today (adverb, on this particular day).
● Overall Meaning: The sentence expresses a current emotional state of being
overloaded with tasks that have approaching due dates.
● Possible Ambiguity: While seemingly straightforward, there could be slight
ambiguity regarding the specific deadlines causing the overwhelm (work, personal,
etc.).
"It is a truth universally acknowledged, that a single man in possession of a good fortune, must be in want of a
wife." (Source: Pride and Prejudice, Chapter 1)

● Constituent Parts: It / is / a truth / universally / acknowledged /, / that / a single / man / in /

possession / of / a good / fortune /, / must be / in want / of / a wife.
● Meanings: It (pronoun) - is (verb, exists) - a truth (noun, something that is true) - universally
(adverb, by everyone) - acknowledged (verb, recognized) - , (comma) - that (conjunction) - a
single (adjective) - man (noun, adult male human) - in (preposition) - possession (noun, the state
of having something) - of (preposition) - a good (adjective) - fortune (noun, a large amount of
money) - , (comma) - must be (modal verb, expressing obligation) - in want (prepositional
phrase, desiring) - of (preposition) - a wife (noun, a woman married to a particular man).
● Overall Meaning: The sentence presents a satirical observation on societal expectations. It
suggests that everyone agrees that a single wealthy man would naturally want to get married
(possibly for his money).
 Compositionality in Language Teaching

● Techniques for teaching language through a compositional lens.

● The importance of understanding compositionality for language instructors.
● How might a teacher's understanding of compositionality affect their teaching
methods?