2.1 Matter A B1 B2 B3 - Issue 02

Licence Category A, B1, B2 and B3
Physics
Module 2.1
Certification Statement and Objectives
These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA
Regulation (EU) No. 1321/2014 Annex III (Part-66) Appendix I,
its amendment, and the associated Knowledge Levels as
specified below:
Part-66 Knowledge Levels

Objective
Ref. A B1 B2 B3
Matter 2.1 1 1 1 1
Nature of matter: the
chemical elements,
structure of atoms,
molecules;
Chemical compounds;
‘States: solid, liquid and
gaseous;
Changes between
states.
Mideast Aviation Academy 1-2 Issue 02 – Revision 00

© Copyright 2021 FOR TRAINING PURPOSE ONLY May 2021
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Module 2.1
Table of Contents
Nature of matter 6 General 6 Dalton’s atomic
Chemical bonding 38 Adhesion and cohesion
theory 7
38 Noble gases 38
Structure of atoms 8 Covalent bonding
Protons 8 40
Neutrons 8 Allotropes
Electrons 8 42 Ionic bonding
44 Metallic bonding (electron cloud)
Periodic table of the elements 10 Elements, 48
mixtures, compounds and molecules 12 States; solid, liquid and gaseous 50
Elements Solids 50
12 Liquids 50
Mixtures Gases 50
13 Plasma
Compounds 50 Changes between states
14 51 Brownian motion
Molecules 52 Thermal expansion of solids, liquids and gases
16 Chemical formulae 52 Kinetic particle theory
16 Chemical reactions 52
18
Acids and alkalis 54
Atomic number and mass number 20 Atomic Acids 54
number 20 Mass number 20 Atomic mass Alkalis
unit (AMU) 20 Isotopes 24 54 The pH scale
Electron arrangements 26 56
Shells 26
Subshells 28
Ionization
28 Examples of electron arrangements
28 Valency
30 Conductors, semiconductors and non-conductors (insulators) 32
Summary
36

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Module 2.1
Nature of matter
General
Atoms are the smallest particles of matter whose properties Further investigation revealed that the nucleus is actually
we study in chemistry. However, from experiments done in composed of two kinds of particles of a roughly equal size and
the late 19th and early 20th century it was deduced that substance packed closely together. These nuclear particles
atoms were made up of three fundamental sub-atomic are the proton and neutron. When we refer to the amount of
particles (see table below). material or substance in an object, we are really talking about
the number of protons and neutrons in that object.
The early Greek philosophers proposed that all matter is made
up of incredibly small but discrete units (like the bricks in our Also, what we perceive as the mass of an object is related
wall example). Democritus (460 - 370 BC) was the first to call directly to the number of protons and neutrons contained it.
these units ‘atomos’. From this phrase came the term atom
that we use today. Atomos is a Greek phrase which means The simplest atom is hydrogen which has a single proton for a
‘not cut’ or ‘that which is indivisible’. nucleus. An atom of lead, on the other hand, has 82 protons
and 125 neutrons in its nucleus and so has 207 (125 + 82)
Atoms can neither be created nor destroyed during chemical times as much material or substance as an atom of hydrogen.
reactions.
The size of an atom bears no simple relation to the number of
All atoms are, crudely speaking, the same size and can be particles in its nucleus. A sodium atom, for example, with 11
thought to consist of two main parts. The outer part is protons and 12 neutrons is approximately the same size as an
composed of one or more orbits of electrons. atom of mercury with 80 protons and 121 neutrons.
These orbits make up most of the volume of the atom yet In general, we can say that the size of an atom is determined
contributes practically nothing to its substance. The other part, by its electron orbits, its substance is determined by the total
located at the centre, is extremely small compared to the atom number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus.
as a whole, yet essentially all of the real substance of the atom
can be attributed to this small speck. We call this speck the
nucleus.

Module 2.1
Dalton’s atomic theory
Around 1805, John Dalton proposed a theory to explain the
nature of matter that is remarkably similar to modern atomic
theory. While this theory is stated in a variety of ways, the key
points of this theory are:
 All matter is composed of indivisible particles called atoms.

 All atoms of an element are identical, while atoms of
different elements are different.
 Molecules are a combination of any two or more atoms.
Compounds are a combination of atoms from two or more
different elements.
 Chemical reactions involve the rearrangement of atoms.
The atoms themselves do not change.
The law of conservation of mass is a direct consequence of

this last postulate. The law of constant composition is a
result of the fact that molecules generally contain fixed ratios
of atoms.

Module 2.1
Structure of atoms
Atoms cannot be seen with the naked eye, only recently has Electrons
this been possible, with very powerful microscopes. However, Electrons are the smallest of the three sub-atomic particles.
scientists have a good idea of how they behave in different Electrons are nearly 2,000 times smaller than protons and
situations. Based on these ideas, they have developed a neutrons. The electrons move in a zone around the atomic
model of what the atom looks like, to help us understand nucleus at extremely high speeds, forming an electron cloud
atoms better. that is much larger than the nucleus. Have a look again at the
diagram which shows a model of the atom to see this.
The modern model of the atom teaches us that all atoms are
made up of sub-atomic particles. Sub-atomic means ‘smaller What Is An Atom?
than the atom’. https://youtu.be/o-3I1JGW-Ck
Protons
The protons are deep inside the atom, in a zone called the What Is An Atom - Part 1 | Chemistry for All |
nucleus. The protons are said to be positively charged. FuseSchool https://youtu.be/7VZApOzxYC4
 When two protons get near each other, they push each What Is An Atom - Part 2 - Isotopes | Chemistry for All
other away. | FuseSchool
 When an electron gets near a proton, they attract each https://youtu.be/51zQgewbjEs
other.
 Two electrons will also push each other away.
Scientists use the word ‘charge’ to represent the property

these particles have. We observe that:
 like charges repel (meaning the same charges push

each other away)
 opposite charges attract
Neutrons
Neutrons are particles that are neither positively nor negatively
charged. They are neutral. The neutrons together with protons
form the tightly packed nucleus at the centre of the atom.

Module 2.1
The sub-atomic components of atoms
Electrons, neutrons, protons.

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Periodic table of the elements
The periodic table is a tabular arrangement of the chemical All elements from atomic numbers 1 (hydrogen) to 118
elements, ordered by their atomic number (number of (ununoctium) have been discovered or synthesised, with the
protons), electron configurations, and recurring chemical most recent additions (elements 113, 115, 117, and 118) being
properties. This ordering shows periodic trends, such as confirmed in 2015. The first 94 elements exist naturally,
elements with similar behaviour in the same column. It also although some are found only in trace amounts and were
shows four rectangular blocks with some approximately synthesised in laboratories before being found in nature.
similar chemical properties. In general, within one row (period) Elements with atomic numbers from 95 to 118 have only been
the elements are metals on the left and non-metals on the synthesised in laboratories or nuclear reactors. Synthesis of
right. elements having higher atomic numbers is being pursued.
The rows of the table are called periods; the columns are Numerous synthetic radionuclides of naturally occurring
called groups. Six groups (columns) have names as well as elements have also been produced in laboratories.
numbers: for example, group 17 elements are the halogens;
and group 18, the noble gases. The periodic table can be Hydrogen, 1, H, does not readily fit into any group.
used to derive relationships between the properties of the
elements, and predict the properties of new elements yet to A group is a vertical column of like elements e.g. group IA,
be discovered or synthesised. The periodic table provides a the alkali metals (Li, Na, K etc.), group VIIB, the halogens (F,
useful framework for analysing chemical behaviour and is Cl, Br, I, etc.) and group VIII (or 0), the noble gases (He, Ne,
widely used in chemistry and other sciences. Ar, etc.). The group number equals the number of electrons in
the outer shell (e.g. chlorine’s electron arrangement is 2.8.7,
Dmitri Mendeleev published in 1869 the first widely recognised the second element down, in group 7).
periodic table. He developed his table to illustrate periodic
trends in the properties of the then-known elements. Each element has a fixed position on the periodic table.
Mendeleev also predicted some properties of then-unknown
elements that would be expected to fill gaps in this table. Most The elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic
of his predictions were proved correct when the elements in number.
question were subsequently discovered. Mendeleev’s periodic Introduction to the
table has since been expanded and refined with the discovery Periodic Table
or synthesis of further new elements and the development of https://youtu.be/Zg6KeXsDVwY
new theoretical models to explain chemical behaviour. How Does The Periodic Table Work | Chemistry for All |
FuseSchool
https://youtu.be/P6DMEgE8CK8

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The periodic table of elements

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Elements, mixtures, compounds and
molecules
There are only two classes of pure substances, namely
elements and compounds. To understand the difference
between the two, look at the two diagrams below.
Elements
Pure substances, made up of atoms with the same number of
protons. An element is a material that is made up of atoms of
only one kind.
Note that an element:

 consists of indivisible, minute particles called atoms.
 consists of only one kind of atom, all atoms of a given
element are identical.
 cannot be broken down into a simpler type of matter by
either physical or chemical means, and
 can exist as either atoms (e.g. argon) or molecules (e.g.
nitrogen).
Atoms of different elements have different masses. They are

identified by the number of protons in its nucleus - the number
of neutrons may change (isotopes) and/or the number of
electrons may change (ions) but the element will retain its
identity.

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Mixtures
Mixtures have the properties of the different substances that
make it up. Mixtures melt at a range of temperatures and are
easy to separate.
Element, mixture or compound ? | Chemistry for All |

The Fuse School
https://youtu.be/MaZ7lsc5ub8
Note that a mixture:
 consists of two or more different elements and/or

compounds which are not chemically bonded, they are
physically intermingled,
 can be separated into its components by physical means,
 often retains many of the properties of its components.

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Compounds
A compound is a material that is made up of two or more kinds
of atoms that are chemically bonded together. The
properties of a compound are different from the atoms that
make it up.
Chemical synthesis is the name given to the purposeful

execution of chemical reactions to obtain a compound.
Compounds can only be broken down chemically (i.e. by a

chemical reaction). The splitting of a compound into its
constituent elements is called chemical analysis,
decomposition or breakdown.
Note that a compound:
 consists of atoms of two or more different elements bound

together chemically,
 can be broken down into a simpler type of matter
(elements) by chemical means (but not by physical
means),
 has properties that are different from its component
elements, and
 always contains the same ratio of its component atoms.
There are at least 118 elements in our known universe. They

can form compounds by bonding in millions of different
combinations - far too many to discuss here!

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An element consists of atoms

that are all the same kind
A compound consists of two or
more kinds of atoms in a fixed
ratio.
 Atom: the smallest possible piece of an element.
 Element: a substance in which all of the atoms are (almost) identical
 Molecule: a combination of two or more atoms connected in a fixed ratio that act as a single unit.
 Compound: a molecule containing two or more elements.
Atoms of an element Molecules of an element Molecules of a Mixture of elements and

compound a compound

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Molecules
A molecule is two or more atoms that have chemically bonded All water molecules are exactly the same. We say the atoms
with each other. are bonded in a fixed ratio: two hydrogen atoms for every one
oxygen atom. The atoms in the molecule are held together by
The atoms in a molecule can be of the same kind (in which a special force that we call a ‘chemical bond’.
case it would be a molecule of an element), or they can be of
different kinds (in which case it would be a molecule of a Atoms, Molecules, Elements and
compound). Compounds https://youtu.be/AfXxZwNLvPA
Not all elements have molecules. The metals on the left-hand Chemical formulae
side and the middle part of the periodic table are solids at Each element has its own unique chemical symbol. We can
room temperature and so they exist as tightly packed arrays combine these symbols into a chemical formula, for example,
of atoms like the previous examples of silver and copper. for water. The chemical formula is another very important
concept in chemistry.
Many of the non-metals on the right-hand side of the periodic
table are gases at room temperature that exist as molecules The chemical formula for water is H2O. It shows the ratio of hydrogen
made up of two atoms each. These are called diatomic
atoms (two) to oxygen atoms (one) in one molecule of water.
molecules. Oxygen (O2), nitrogen (N2), hydrogen (H2), chlorine (Cl2)
A compound is a material that consists of atoms of two or
and some other elements from the non-metals all form diatomic
more different elements. The elements are not just physically
molecules.
mixed, but chemically bonded together at the atomic level.
‘Diatomic’ refers to a molecule made of two of the same atoms
Water (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2) and salt or sodium chloride (NaCl)
bonded together, as in oxygen (O2). ‘Di’ means two. ‘Triatomic’ refers
are examples of compounds, while oxygen gas (O2), hydrogen gas (H2)
to a molecule made up of three of the same atoms bonded
and nitrogen gas (N2) are examples of elements.
together, like ozone (O3).
Reading a Chemical Formula - Breaking Down
Since water is such an important compound for organisms Molecules https://youtu.be/G9Ta7bg5Tlk
living on Earth, we will use that as our first example. Scientists
know that a water molecule is made up of one oxygen atom
and two hydrogen atoms. If we could see them, all water
molecules would look a little bit like this diagram of a water
molecule.

Module 2.1
A water molecule
representation (oxygen and
hydrogen)
Chemical symbol H2O
The white, grey, and red spheres represent atoms of

hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen, respectively.
Oxygen (O2)
Ethanol (C2H6O)
Water (H2O)
Ethanol Glycol ((CH2OH)2)

Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Aspirin (C9H8O4)

Module 2.1
Example: Chemical reactions
A chemical reaction is a process that leads to the
The compound with the formula H2O2 also consists of hydrogen atoms transformation of one set of chemical substances to another.
and oxygen atoms. The formula tells us that one molecule of Classically, chemical reactions encompass changes that only
involve the positions of electrons in the forming and breaking
this substance is made up of two atoms of hydrogen and two of chemical bonds between atoms, with no change to the
atoms of oxygen. Is H2O2 the same as water? nuclei (no change to the elements present), and can often be
described by a chemical equation.
Do not confuse H2O2 with H2O. H2O2 is a compound called hydrogen The substance (or substances) initially involved in a chemical
peroxide. Hydrogen peroxide is similar to water in that it is a reaction are called reactants or reagents. Chemical reactions
clear, colourless liquid at room temperature (25°C) though not are usually characterised by a chemical change, and they
as runny, but it is different in many ways. The following yield one or more products, which usually have properties
properties of hydrogen peroxide may convince you that it is different from the reactants.
not the same as water:
Chemical reactions happen at a characteristic reaction rate at
 Hydrogen peroxide has a boiling point of 150°C and it is a a given temperature and chemical concentration. Typically,
very effective bleach for clothes and hair. reaction rates increase with increasing temperature because
 Concentrated hydrogen peroxide is so reactive that it is there is more thermal energy available to reach the activation
used as a component in rocket fuel! energy necessary for breaking bonds between atoms.
 Hydrogen peroxide is extremely corrosive.
 We can drink water, but hydrogen peroxide is very Sometimes, an additional chemical is added to increase the
hazardous and harmful. rate of reaction. This is called a catalyst. With a catalyst,
reactions occur faster and require less activation energy.
Even though they are made up of exactly the same elements, Because catalysts are not consumed in the catalysed reaction,
the two compounds are very different and should never be they can continue to catalyse the reaction of further quantities
confused with one another. of reactant. Often only tiny amounts are required.
The purpose of the comparison of hydrogen peroxide and Inhibitors are sometimes referred to as “negative catalysts”
water above was to show you that the atoms in a given since they decrease the reaction rate.
compound are always combined in a fixed ratio. In all water
molecules in the universe, there will always be one O atom What triggers a
and two H atoms bonded together. chemical reaction?
https://youtu.be/8m6RtOpqvtU

Module 2.1
Hydrogen peroxide molecule

(H2O2)
Water molecule (H2O) and water

Module 2.1
Atomic number and mass number
Atomic number For example, carbon-14 is created from nitrogen-14 with
The atomic number (also known as the proton number) is seven protons (p) and seven neutrons via a cosmic ray
the number of protons found in the nucleus of an atom. It is interaction which transmutes 1 proton into 1 neutron. Thus,
traditionally represented by the symbol Z. The atomic number the atomic number decreases by 1 (Z: 7→6) and the mass
uniquely identifies a chemical element. In an atom of neutral number remains the same (A = 14), however, the number of
charge, atomic number is equal to the number of electrons. neutrons increases by 1 (n: 7→8).
Mass number Before: nitrogen-14 (7p, 7n)

The mass number (A), also called atomic mass number or
After: carbon-14 (6p, 8n).
nucleon number, is the number of protons and neutrons (also
defined as a less commonly known term, nucleons) in an Atomic mass unit (AMU)
atomic nucleus. The mass number is unique for each isotope In physics, the term for what we have up to now referred to as
of an element and is written either after the element name or the amount of substance or matter is ‘mass’. A natural unit for
as a superscript to the left of an element’s symbol. mass is the mass of a proton or neutron. This unit has the
name atomic mass unit (AMU or amu). This unit is useful in
For example, carbon-12 (C-12) has 6 protons and 6 neutrons.
those sciences which deal with atomic and nuclear matter.
The full isotope symbol would also have the atomic number
(Z) as a subscript to the left of the element symbol directly
An atomic mass unit is defined as precisely 1⁄12 the mass of an atom of
below
carbon-12. The carbon-12 (C-12) atom has six protons and
six neutrons in its nucleus.
the mass number, thus: In imprecise terms, one AMU is the average of the proton rest
mass and the neutron rest mass. This is approximately
The difference between the mass number and the atomic 1.67377 x 10-27 kilogram (kg), or 1.67377 x 10-24 gram (g). The
number gives the number of neutrons (N) in a given nucleus: mass of an atom in AMU is roughly equal to the sum of the
N = A-Z. number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
In measuring the mass of objects which we encounter daily,

this unit is much too small and therefore very inconvenient.
For example, the mass of a bowling ball expressed in AMUs
would be about 4,390,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000.

Module 2.1
Atomic number and mass number notation

Module 2.1
One kilogram equals 602,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000
AMU. Since one amu is the mass of a proton or neutron we
know immediately that a kilogram of anything has this
combined number of protons and neutrons contained in it.
Atomic Mass: Introduction

https://youtu.be/7fYpEnxhKQk
What Is An Atom?
https://youtu.be/o-3I1JGW-Ck
What’s the Difference between Mass Number and Atomic

Mass?
https://youtu.be/m15DWkkGe_0

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Atomic number and mass number notation on

the periodic table

Module 2.1
Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different andare the two isotopes of sodium with mass
numbers of neutrons. This gives each isotope of the element numbers of 23 and 24, with 12 and 13 neutrons respectively
a different mass or nucleon number but being the same but both have 11 protons. Sodium-23 is quite stable e.g. in
element, they have the same atomic or proton number. There common salt (NaCl, sodium chloride) but sodium- 24 is a
are small physical differences between the isotopes, e.g. the radioisotope and is a gamma emitter used in medicine as a
heavier isotope has a greater density and boiling point. radioactive tracer, e.g. to examine organs and the blood
However, because they have the same number of protons, system.
they have the same electronic structure and are identical
chemically. Examples are illustrated below. Do not assume There are three isotopes of carbon found in nature –
the word isotope means it is radioactive, this depends on the carbon- 12, carbon-13, and carbon-14. All three have six
stability of the nucleus i.e. unstable atoms might be referred protons, but their neutron numbers - 6, 7 and 8, respectively -
to as radioisotopes. all differ. This means that all three isotopes have different
atomic masses (carbon-14 being the heaviest), but share the
same atomic number (Z=6).
, and are the three isotopes of hydrogen.
They are called hydrogen, deuterium, and tritium respectively. Chemically, all three are indistinguishable, because
How do we distinguish between them? They each have one the number of electrons in each of these three isotopes is the
single proton (Z=1) but differ in the number of their neutrons. same.
Hydrogen has no neutron, deuterium has one, and tritium has
two neutrons. The isotopes of hydrogen have, respectively, So different isotopes of the same element are
mass numbers of one, two, and three. Hydrogen-1 is the most identical, chemically speaking. But some isotopes have the
common, there is a trace of hydrogen-2 naturally but ability to circumvent this rule by transforming into another
hydrogen- 3 is very unstable and is used in atomic fusion element entyrely.
weapons.
What are Isotopes?
https://youtu.be/EboWeWmh5Pg
and are the two isotopes of helium with mass
numbers of 3 and 4, with 1 and 2 neutrons respectively but
both have 2 protons. Helium-3 is formed in the Sun by the
initial nuclear fusion process. Helium-4 is also formed in the
Sun and as a product of the radioactive alpha decay of an
unstable nucleus. An alpha particle is a helium nucleus, it
picks up two electrons and becomes the atoms of the gas
helium.
Module 2.1
Isotopes of hydrogen
Isotopes of carbon

Module 2.1
Electron arrangements
Shells
The electrons are arranged in energy levels or shells around Electrons in the same orbit have same energies. The electron
the nucleus and with increasing distance from the nucleus. The orbits are also called as electron energy levels or shells.
shells are lettered from the innermost shell outwards from K to Electronic shells are known as K shell, L shell, M shell, N shell
Q. There are rules about the maximum number of electrons corresponding to orbit number n=1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively.
allowed in each shell. Higher number orbits are assigned shell names in alphabetical
order after N.
 The 1st shell (K) has a maximum of 2 electrons
 The 2nd shell (L) has a maximum of 8 electrons
 The 3rd shell (M) has a maximum of 18 electrons
 The 4th shell (N) has a maximum of 32 electrons
Our knowledge about the structure of atoms depends on the

mathematical formulations predicted by Neils Bohr. He
suggested that electrons are distributed in orbits and the
number of electrons held in the orbit depends on the number
of the orbit. The orbits are counted outwards from the nucleus.
Higher the orbit number, the further are the electrons in that
orbit from the nucleus. If the orbit number is “n”, then the
maximum electrons held in the orbit is given as 2n2. The first
orbit has n=1, and will hold a maximum of two electrons, the
second orbit has n=2 and is capable of holding a total of eight
electrons; similarly, the third orbit will be able to contain 18
electrons and so on. This is known as Pauli’s exclusion
principle.
Electrons within an atom have definite energies. The electrons

closest to the nucleus (n=1) are most tightly bound; the reason
is because of stronger electrostatic attraction with the nucleus.
Electrons in the highest orbit are least tightly bound.

Module 2.1
The atomic structure of helium and neon
Electron shell (orbit) designation

Module 2.1
Subshells Drawing electron configuration diagrams | Chemistry for All
Shells also have subshells. The subshells define the energy | The Fuse School
levels. https://youtu.be/hSkJzE2Vz_w
‘s, p, d, f’ are the names given to the subshells that hold the
electrons in the shells of atoms. These orbitals have different Ionization
shapes (e.g. electron density distributions) and energies (e.g. When the atom loses electrons or gains electrons in this
1s is lower energy than 2s which is lower energy than 3s; 2s is process of electron exchange, it is said to be ionised. For
lower energy than 2p). ionisation to take place, there must be a transfer of energy
which results in a change in the internal energy of the atom.
Physicists and chemists use a standard notation to indicate the An atom having more than its normal amount of electrons
electron configurations of atoms. The notation consists of a acquires a negative charge and is called a negative ion (or
sequence of atomic orbital labels (e.g. for phosphorus the ‘anion’). The atom that gives up some of its normal electrons is
sequence 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p) with the number of electrons left with less negative charges than positive charges and is
assigned to each orbital (or set of orbitals sharing the same called a positive ion (or ‘cation’). Thus, ionisation is the process
label) placed as a superscript. by which an atom loses or gains electrons.
For example, hydrogen has one electron in the s-orbital of the  Cation – A cation is a positively charged ion. Metals
first shell, so its configuration is written 1s1. Lithium has two typically form cations.
electrons in the 1s-subshell and one in the (higher-energy) 2s-  Anion – An anion is a negatively charged ion. Non-metals
subshell, so its configuration is written 1s2 2s1 (pronounced typically form anions.
“one-s-two, two-s-one”). Phosphorus (atomic number 15) is as
follows: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3. Examples of electron arrangements
The diagrams below show some examples of electron
For atoms with many electrons, this notation can become arrangements in the shells of the respective atoms.
lengthy and so an abbreviated notation is used, since all but the
last few subshells are identical to those of one or another of Subshells are not shown.
the noble gases. Phosphorus, for instance, differs from neon
(1s2 2s2 2p6) only by the presence of a third shell. Thus, the
electron configuration of neon is pulled out, and phosphorus is
written as follows: [Ne] 3s2 3p3. This convention is useful as it is
the electrons in the outermost shell that most determine the
chemistry of the element.

Module 2.1
On period 1 On period 3
Electron arrangement of hydrogen and helium Electron arrangement of sodium, chlorine and argon
On period 2
On period 4
Electron arrangement of lithium, carbon and neon

Electron arrangement of potassium and calcium

Module 2.1
Valency
Hydrogen is the simplest element. It has one electron. Its outer Now to oxygen and sulphur. Both have six outer electrons. Six
shell only holds two electrons. Let us use hydrogen as a is two electrons short of a full shell. Their normal valences are
standard to see how other atoms combine with it. The table 2 and they combine with two atoms of hydrogen.
below lists the simplest compound of selected elements with
hydrogen. Finally, fluorine and chlorine – seven outer electrons. This is
one short of a full shell. They both combine with a single
Valency can be simply defined as the number of hydrogen hydrogen atom and their normal valences are 1.
atoms that an element can combine with. In the table, helium,
neon and argon have a valency of 0. They do not normally form As a side note, chlorine can also have valences of 3, 5 and 7.
compounds. The reasons are well beyond the scope of these notes.
Lithium, sodium and potassium have a valency of 1 because The rules above can be summarised as follows:
they combine with one hydrogen atom. Beryllium, magnesium
and calcium all have a valency of 2: they combine with two The normal valency of an atom is equal to the number of
hydrogen atoms. Note that the valences of all these atoms are outer electrons if that number is four or less. Otherwise,
equal to the number of outer electrons that these elements the valency is equal to eight minus the number of outer
have. electrons.
Boron and aluminium combine with three hydrogen atoms – The atoms with full electron shells (helium, neon, argon) are
their valences are 3 – and they have three outer electrons. chemically inert forming few compounds. The atoms don’t even
interact with each other very much. These elements are gases
Carbon and silicon combine with four hydrogen atoms. The with very low boiling points.
valency of these elements is 4. It will come as no surprise that
they both have four outer electrons. Any element with four The atoms with a single outer electron or a single missing
electrons in its outer shell is known as a semiconductor electron are all highly reactive. Sodium is more reactive than
magnesium. Chlorine is more reactive than oxygen. Generally
What about nitrogen and phosphorus? They have five outer speaking, the closer an atom is to having a full electron shell,
electrons. But they normally only combine with three hydrogen the more reactive it is. Atoms with one outer electron are more
atoms. Their valences are 3. Note that three is five less than reactive than those with two outer electrons, etc. Atoms that are
eight. These atoms are three electrons short of a full shell. one electron short of a full shell are more reactive than those
that are two electrons short.
Please note that both nitrogen and phosphorus can also have a
valency of 5. Some atoms are capable of having more than
one valency. That will confuse the issue so we will talk of
normal valency.
Module 2.1
Atoms with only a few electrons in its outer shell are good
electrical conductors. Atoms with eight, or close to eight
electrons in their outer shells are poor conductors (or good
insulators). This is why atoms with four electrons in its outer
shell are semiconductors.
When a semiconductor (such as silicon or germanium) atom

bonds with another similar atom, it does so covalently. Each
atom shares one electron with four neighbour atoms. Thus, all
its electrons are used up in what becomes a solid lattice of
semiconductor atoms. The solid material has, therefore, no free
electrons (and no holes for electrons to fit into).
The following names are given to ions of the specific

number of electron bindings (valence):
 1 electron binding – monovalent
 2 electron binding – divalent
 3 electron binding – trivalent
 4 electron binding – tetravalent
 5 electron binding – pentavalent
 6 electron binding – hexavalent
Electrons in outer shells of some common elements

Module 2.1
Conductors, semiconductors and non-conductors
(insulators)
Conductors
In a conductor, electric current can flow freely, in an insulator it
cannot. Metals such as copper typify conductors, while most
non-metallic solids are said to be good insulators, having
extremely high resistance to the flow of electrical charge
through them.
“Conductor” implies that the outer electrons of the atoms are

loosely bound and free to move through the material. Most
atoms hold on to their electrons tightly and are insulators. In
copper, the valence electrons are essentially free and strongly
repel each other. Any external influence which moves one of
them will cause a repulsion of other electrons which
propagates, “domino fashion” through the conductor.
Simply stated, most metals are good electrical conductors,

most non-metals are not. Metals are also generally good heat
conductors while non-metals are not.
Insulators
Most solid materials are classified as insulators because they
offer very large resistance to the flow of electric current. Metals
are classified as conductors because their outer electrons are
not tightly bound, but in most materials, even the outermost
electrons are so tightly bound that there is essentially zero
electron flow through them with ordinary voltages. Some
materials are particularly good insulators and can be
characterised by their high resistivities

Module 2.1
An electrical wire has both a conductor

material and an insulating material
Ceramic insulators are commonly used in electrical pylons

Module 2.1
Semiconductors
Solid materials are classified by the way the atoms are Conductors and Non-Conductors | Chemistry for All | The Fuse
arranged within the solid. Materials in which atoms are placed School
at random are called amorphous. Materials in which atoms are https://youtu.be/U8IFo7ykHuU
placed in a highly ordered structure are called crystalline.
Semiconductors are crystalline or amorphous solids with

distinct electrical characteristics. They are of high resistance –
higher than typical resistance materials, but still of much lower
resistance than insulators.
Their resistance decreases as their temperature increases,

which is behaviour opposite to that of a metal.
Pure semiconductors have only a small number of free

electrons available and pass a limited amount of electrical
current. In general, their valence electrons are tightly bound
within their crystal (lattice) structure.
Semiconductors are extremely important in modern electronics

because they can be used to control the amount of current in
an electrical system. Their conducting properties may be
altered in useful ways by the deliberate, controlled introduction
of impurities (called ‘doping’) into the crystal structure, which
lowers its resistance but also permits the creation of
semiconductor junctions between differently-doped regions of
the extrinsic semiconductor crystal.
Although some pure elements and many compounds display

semiconductor properties, silicon, germanium, and compounds
of gallium are the most widely used in electronic devices. All
these elements have four electrons in their outer shell
(tetravalent).

Module 2.1
Semiconductor crystal materials and

light emitting diodes (LEDs), in
which semiconductor materials are
used in their construction and
operation
Each atom in a silicon lattice has its valence
electrons tightly bound within the lattice structure.
Doping with impurities can create specific
amounts of holes and free electrons,
thus controlling the conductivity

Module 2.1
Summary
Electrons per shell

Module 2.1
Electrons per shell

Module 2.1
Chemical bonding
The photo below shows different arrangements of metal balls. In the above chemical reaction, the water has ‘decomposed’
These balls are magnetic and this allows you to make different (broke up) and ‘recombined’ into smaller molecules. We say
patterns by sticking them together. that water has undergone a decomposition reaction in the
example above. Of course, not all chemical reactions are
Magnets attract (or repel) each other because of a magnetic decomposition reactions. There are many different kinds of
force between them. When atoms combine, they do so chemical reactions.
because they also experience an attractive force. The force is
slightly more complex than the force between magnets, but it Adhesion and cohesion
works in the same way: The force holds atoms together as if ‘Cohesion’ is the intermolecular force between liquid particle
they are stuck together with glue. The forces that hold atoms types (for example, it is what makes water molecules stick
together are called chemical bonds. together, or ‘cohere’, to make a rain drop). ‘Adhesion’ is the
intermolecular force between dissimilar atoms (for example, it
In the water molecule, chemical bonds between O and the two is what makes the rain drops ‘adhere’ to a washing line).
H atoms hold the whole molecule together. These types of bonding are temporary. Atomic bonding refers
to the permanent bonding between atoms which holds all
The water molecule has two identical O-H bonds. What would materials together.
happen if we had enough energy to break those bonds?
Noble gases
What would we have if we separated water molecules into
Some atoms are very reluctant to combine with other atoms
their atoms? Theoretically, we would have hydrogen and
and exist in the air around us as single atoms. These are the
oxygen atoms. What actually happens is that the hydrogen
noble gases and have very stable electron arrangements e.g.
atoms immediately combine to form H2 and the oxygen atoms 2, 2.8 and 2.8.8 and are shown in the figures below.
immediately combine to form O2.
How Do Atoms Bond | Chemistry for All |
When atoms separate from each other and recombine into FuseSchool https://youtu.be/lQKC3BFZK6w
different combinations of atoms, we say a chemical reaction
has occurred. How Do Atoms Bond | Chemistry for All |
FuseSchool https://youtu.be/w0cIvkRj0mw
How Do Atoms Bond - Part 2 | Chemistry for All |

FuseSchool https://youtu.be/cUKifjMhXRo

Module 2.1
Decomposition of H2O molecule and

Water molecule (H2O)
recombination to H2 and O2 molecules
Magnetic balls
(Atomic number) and electron

arrangement of some noble gases

Module 2.1
Covalent bonding Example 1 – two hydrogen atoms (1) form the molecule of the
Covalent bonding is a form of chemical bonding where element hydrogen H2
electrons are shared to form molecules. This type of bond is
usually formed between two non-metallic elements in a
molecule. and combine to form where both atoms
have a pseudo helium structure of two outer electrons around
The molecules might be that of an element i.e. one type of each atom.
atom only or from different elements chemically combined to
form a compound. Example 2 – two chlorine atoms (2.8.7) form the
molecule of the element chlorine Cl2
The covalent bonding is caused by the mutual electrical
attraction between the two positive nuclei of the two atoms of
the bond, and the electrons between them. and combine to form where both atoms
have a pseudo-neon or argon structure of eight outer electrons
One single covalent bond is a sharing of one pair of electrons, around each atom.
two pairs of shared electrons between the same two atoms
gives a double bond and it is possible for two atoms to share Example 3 – one atom of hydrogen (1) combines with
three pairs of electrons and give a triple bond. one atom of chlorine (2.8.7) to form the molecule of the
compound hydrogen chloride HCl
Small covalent molecules
Sometimes called molecular covalent bonding.
The simplest molecules are formed from two atoms and and combine to form where hydrogen is
examples of their formation are shown below. The electrons electronically like helium and chlorine like neon or argon.
are shown as dots and crosses to indicate which atom the
electrons come from, though all electrons are the same. The Example 4 – two atoms of hydrogen (1) combine with
diagrams may only show the outer electron arrangements for one atom of oxygen (2.6) to form the molecule of the
atoms that use two or more electron shells. Examples of small compound we call water H2O
covalent molecules are…
What Are Dot and Cross Diagrams - Covalent Bonds - Part

1| Chemistry for All | FuseSchool and and combine to form so that
https://youtu.be/7tHM-40iK7E the hydrogen atoms are electronically like helium and the
oxygen atom becomes like neon or argon.

Module 2.1
The molecule can be shown as with two hydrogen –

oxygen single covalent bonds.
The molecule can be shown as with four
What Are Dot and Cross Diagrams - Covalent Bonds - Part 2 carbon – hydrogen single covalent bonds.
| Chemistry for All | FuseSchool
https://youtu.be/QzytnZY67J8 All the bonds in the above examples are single covalent
bonds. Below are three examples 7-9, where there is a
Example 5 – three atoms of hydrogen (1) combine with one double bond in the molecule, in order that the atoms have
atom of nitrogen (2.5) to form the molecule of the compound stable noble gas outer electron arrangements around each
we call ammonia NH3 atom.
Example 7 – two atoms of oxygen (2.6) combine to form the
Three of and one combine to form

molecules of the element oxygen O2.
so that the hydrogen atoms are electronically like helium and
the nitrogen atom becomes like neon or argon.
The molecule has one double covalent bond .
Example 8 – one atom of carbon (2.4) combines with two

The molecule can be shown as with three atoms of oxygen (2.6) to form carbon dioxide CO2.
nitrogen – hydrogen single covalent bonds.
Example 6 – four atoms of hydrogen (1) combine with one The molecule can be shown as with two
atom of carbon (2.4) to form the molecule of the compound carbon = oxygen double covalent bonds.
we call methane CH4. Example 9 – two atoms of carbon (2.4) combine with four
atoms of hydrogen (1) to form ethane C2H4.
The molecule can be shown as with one

Four of and one of combine to form
carbon = carbon double bond and four carbon – hydrogen
so that the hydrogen atoms are electronically like helium and
single covalent bonds.
the nitrogen atom becomes like neon or argon.

Module 2.1
The electrical forces of attraction between atoms in a molecule Allotropes
are strong and most molecules do not change on heating. Allotropy or allotropism meaning “other”, and tropos, meaning
However, the forces between molecules are weak and easily “manner” or “form”) is the property of some chemical elements
weakened further on heating. Consequently, small covalent to exist in two or more different forms, in the same physical
molecules have low melting and boiling points. They are also state, known as allotropes of these elements. Allotropes are
poor conductors of electricity because there are no free different structural modifications of an element; the atoms of
electrons or ions in any state to carry an electric charge. Most the element are bonded together in a different manner. For
small molecules will dissolve in a solvent to form a solution. example, the allotropes of carbon include diamond (where the
carbon atoms are bonded together in a tetrahedral lattice
Large covalent molecules arrangement), graphite (where the carbon atoms are bonded
Sometimes called giant covalent bonding. together in sheets of a hexagonal lattice), graphene (single
sheets of graphite), and fullerenes (where the carbon atoms
It is possible for many atoms to link up to form a giant covalent are bonded together in spherical, tubular, or ellipsoidal
structure. This produces a very strong three-dimensional formations).
covalent bond network. This is illustrated by carbon in the form
of diamond. Carbon can form four single bonds to four other What are Allotropes? Non-Metals | Chemistry for All |
atoms. This type of structure is thermally very stable and they FuseSchool
have high melting and boiling points. https://youtu.be/R-Q_00aPqpU
They are usually poor conductors of electricity because the

electrons are not usually free to move as they can in metallic
structures. Also because of the strength of the bonding in the
structure, they are often very hard and will not dissolve in
solvents like water.
What Are Covalent Bonds | Chemistry for All |

FuseSchool https://youtu.be/h24UmH38_LI
Covalent Bonding in Water, Methane, Ammonia & Hydrogen

Fluoride | Chemistry for All | FuseSchool
https://youtu.be/7mBokkBENWE
Covalent Bonding of Hydrogen, Oxygen & Nitrogen

| Chemistry for All | FuseSchool
https://youtu.be/0HfN3CvXP2M

Module 2.1
Both graphite (above) and diamond (below) are

forms of carbon. The difference is the method
of bonding and their crystal structure. They are
just two examples of allotropes of carbon.
A plane of carbon atoms from a diamond crystal

Module 2.1
Ionic bonding
Ionic bonding is a type of bonding where one atom transfers Example 1 – A group one metal + a group seven non-metal,
electrons to another atom. The atom losing electrons forms a e.g.
positive ion and is usually a metal. The atom gaining electrons sodium + chlorine  sodium chloride NaCl or ionic formula
forms a negative ion and is usually a non-metallic element. Na+Cl-
Ionic bonds are formed by one atom transferring electrons to In terms of electron arrangement, the sodium donates its outer
another atom to form ions. Ions are atoms, or groups of atoms, electron to a chlorine atom forming a single positive sodium
which have lost or gained electrons. ion and a single negative chloride ion. The atoms have
become stable ions, because electronically, sodium becomes
The atom losing electrons forms a positive ion (a cation) and is like neon and chlorine like argon.
usually a metal. The overall charge on the ion is positive due
to excess positive nuclear charge (protons do not change in Na (2.8.1) + Cl (2.8.7)  Na+ (2.8) Cl– (2.8.8)
chemical reactions).
The atom gaining electrons forms a negative ion (an anion)

and is usually a non-metallic element. The overall charge on
One combines with one to form
the ion is negative because of the gain, and therefore excess,
of negative electrons.
The examples below combining a metal from groups one

(alkali metals), two or three, with a non-metal from group six
or group seven (the halogens).
What are Ionic Bonds? | The Chemistry Journey |

The Fuse School
https://youtu.be/zpaHPXVR8WU
Formulae of Ionic Compounds & their Names - Part 1 |

The Chemistry Journey | The Fuse School
https://youtu.be/vfYnhnfdsD0
Formulae of Ionic Compounds & their Names: Part 2 |

The Chemistry Journey | The Fuse School
https://youtu.be/JylJwHryeSU

Module 2.1
Sodium chloride lattice structure

Sodium chloride is common salt

Module 2.1
Example 2 – A group two metal + a group seven non-metal, Example 3 – A group three metal + a group seven non-metal,
e.g. magnesium + chlorine  magnesium chloride MgCl2 or ionic e.g. aluminium + fluorine  aluminium fluoride AlF3 or ionic formula
formula Mg2+(Cl-–)2 Al3+(F–)3
In terms of electron arrangement, the magnesium donates its In terms of electron arrangement, the aluminium donates its
two outer electrons to two chlorine atoms forming a double three outer electrons to three fluorine atoms forming a triple
positive magnesium ion and two single negative chloride ions. positive aluminium ion and three single negative fluoride ions.
The atoms have become stable ions, because electronically, The atoms have become stable ions, because electronically,
magnesium becomes like neon and chlorine like argon. aluminium becomes like neon and also fluorine.
Mg (2.8.2) + 2Cl (2.8.7)  Mg2+ (2.8) 2Cl – (2.8.8) Al (2.8.3) + 3F (2.8.7)  Al3+ (2.8) 3F– (2.8)
One combines with two to form One combines with three to form
see* Example 4 – A group one metal + a group six non-metal, e.g.

(*Note you can draw two separate chloride ions, but in these
potassium + oxygen  potassium oxide K2O or ionic formula (K+)2O2–
examples, a number subscript has been used, as in ordinary
chemical formula) In terms of electron arrangement, the two potassium atoms
donate their outer electrons to one oxygen atom. This results
in two single positive potassium ions to one double negative
oxide ion. All the ions have the stable electronic structures
2.8.8 (argon-like) or 2.8 (neon-like)
2K (2.8.8.1) + O (2.6)  2K+ (2.8.8) O2– (2.8)
Two combine with one to form

Module 2.1
Example 5 – A group two metal + a group six non-metal, e.g.
calcium + oxygen  calcium oxide CaO or ionic formula
Ca2+O2–
In terms of electron arrangement, one calcium atom donates

its two outer electrons to one oxygen atom. This results in a
double positive calcium ion to one double negative oxide ion.
All the ions have the stable electronic structures 2.8.8 (argon-
like) or 2.8 (neon-like)
Ca (2.8.8.2) + O (2.6)  Ca2+ (2.8.8) O2– (2.8)
One combines with one to form
Example 6 – A group three metal + a group six non-metal,

e.g. aluminium + oxygen  aluminium oxide Al2O3 or ionic formula
(Al3+)2(O2–)3
In terms of electron arrangement, two aluminium atoms

donate their three outer electrons to three oxygen atoms. This
results in two triple positive aluminium ions to three double
negative oxide ions. All the ions have the stable electronic
structure of neon 2.8
2Al (2.8.3) + 3O (2.6)  2Al3+ (2.8) 3O2– (2.8)
Two combines with three to form

Module 2.1
The properties of ionic compounds Metallic bonding (electron cloud)
The ions in an ionic solid are arranged in an orderly way in a The crystal lattice of metals consists of ions, not atoms. The
giant ionic lattice shown in the diagram below. The ionic bond outer electrons (–) from the original metal atoms are free to
is the strong electrical attraction between the positive and move around between the positive metal ions formed (+).
negative ions next to each other in the lattice. Salts and metal These free or ‘de-localised’ electrons are the ‘electronic glue’
oxides are typical ionic compounds. holding the particles together. There is a strong electrical force
of attraction between these mobile electrons and the
This strong bonding force makes the structure hard (if brittle) ‘immobile’ positive metal ions – this is the metallic bond.
and have high melting and boiling points. Unlike covalent
molecules, all ionic compounds are crystalline solids at room This strong bonding generally results in dense, strong
temperature. materials with high melting and boiling points.
Many ionic compounds are soluble in water, but not all. Metals are good conductors of electricity because these ‘free’
electrons carry the charge of an electric current when a
The solid crystals do not conduct electricity because the ions potential difference (voltage) is applied across a piece of
are not free to move to carry an electric current. However, if metal.
the ionic compound is melted or dissolved in water, the liquid
will now conduct electricity, as the ion particles are now free. Metals are also good conductors of heat. This is also due to
the free moving electrons. Non-metallic solids conduct heat
Properties of Ionic Substances | Chemistry for All | The energy by hotter more strongly vibrating atoms, knocking
Fuse School against cooler less strongly vibrating atoms to pass the
https://youtu.be/AGD5pIXXt4o particle kinetic energy on. In metals, as well as this effect, the
‘hot’ high kinetic energy electrons move around freely to
transfer the particle kinetic energy more efficiently to ‘cooler’
atoms.
Typical metals also have a silvery surface but remember this

may be easily tarnished by corrosive oxidation in air and
water.
What are metallic bonds? | Chemistry for All | The

Fuse School
https://youtu.be/S08qdOTd0w0

Module 2.1
Metals are bonded by electron cloud bonding

‘Electron cloud’ formation of ionic (or metallic) bonding

Module 2.1
States; solid, liquid and gaseous
Solids The same cannot be said about a gas; it can also be
A solid object is characterised by its resistance to deformation considered a fluid, but it must conform to the shape of the
and changes of volume. container entyrely.
At the microscopic scale, a solid has these properties: Gases

Gases consist of freely moving atoms or molecules without a
 The atoms or molecules that comprise the solid are definite shape and without a definite volume. Compared to the
packed closely together. solid and liquid states of matter a gas has lower density and a
 These constituent elements have fixed positions in lower viscosity. The volume of a gas will change with changes
space relative to each other. This accounts for the in temperature or pressure, as described by the ideal gas law.
solids rigidity. In mineralogy and crystallography, a A gas also has the characteristic that it will diffuse readily,
crystal structure is a unique arrangement of atoms in a spreading apart in order to uniformly fill the space of any
crystal. A crystal structure is composed of a unit cell, a container.
set of atoms arranged in a particular way; which is
periodically repeated in three dimensions on a lattice. Plasma
The spacing between unit cells in various directions is A plasma is typically an ionised gas. Plasma is considered to
called its lattice parameters. be a distinct state of matter, apart from gases, because of its
 If sufficient force is applied, its lattice atomic structure unique properties. ‘Ionized’ refers to the presence of one or
can be disrupted, causing permanent deformation. more free electrons, which are not bound to an atom or
molecule. The free electric charges make the plasma
Because any solid has some thermal energy, its atoms electrically conductive so that it responds strongly to
vibrate. However, this movement is very small, and cannot be electromagnetic fields.
observed or felt under ordinary conditions.
Plasma typically takes the form of neutral gas-like clouds (e.g.
Liquids stars) or charged ion beams, but may also include dust and
A liquid’s shape is confined to, but not determined by, the grains (called dusty plasmas). They are typically formed by
container it fills. That is to say, liquid particles (normally heating and ionising a gas, stripping electrons away from
molecules or clusters of molecules) are free to move within the atoms, thereby enabling the positive and negative charges to
volume, but they form a discrete surface that may not move more freely.
necessarily be the same as the vessel.

Module 2.1
Changes between states
Solids can melt and become liquids, and liquids can boil to States of Matter - solids, liquids and gases
become gases. Likewise, gases can condense to become | Chemistry for All | The Fuse School
liquids, and liquids can freeze to become solids. https://youtu.be/21CR01rlmv4
Sometimes solids can become gases without ever becoming What Is Plasma | Chemistry for All |
liquids. This is called sublimation. FuseSchool https://youtu.be/94tReSbyPYc
When a gas becomes a solid without going through the liquid
phase, it is called deposition.

Module 2.1
Brownian motion
Particles in both liquids and gases (collectively called ‘fluids’) Molecules within gases are further apart and weakly attracted
move randomly. This is called Brownian motion. They do this to each other. Heat causes the molecules to move faster,
because they are bombarded by the other moving particles in (heat energy is converted to kinetic energy) which means that
the fluid. Larger particles can be moved by light, fast-moving the volume of a gas increases more than the volume of a
molecules. solid or liquid.
Brownian motion is named after the botanist Robert Brown, However, gases that are contained in a fixed volume cannot
who first observed this in 1827. He used a microscope to look expand - and so increases in temperature result in increases
at pollen grains moving randomly in water. At this point, he in pressure.
could not explain why this occurred.
Kinetic particle theory
What is Brownian motion? | Chemistry for All | The The kinetic particle theory explains the properties of the
Fuse School different states of matter. The particles in solids, liquids and
https://youtu.be/NHo6LTXdFns gases have different amounts of energy. They are arranged
differently and move in different ways.
Brownian Motion
https://youtu.be/EZgbcQtnXME
Thermal expansion of solids,

liquids and gases
All three states of matter (solid, liquid and gas) expand when
heated. The atoms themselves do not expand, but the volume
they take up does.
When a solid is heated, its atoms vibrate faster about their

fixed points. The relative increase in the size of solids, when
heated, is, therefore, small. Metal railway tracks have small
gaps so that when the sun heats them, the tracks expand into
these gaps and do not buckle.
Liquids expand for the same reason, but because the bonds
between separate molecules are usually less tight they
expand more than solids. This is the principle behind liquid-in-
glass thermometers. An increase in temperature results in the
expansion of the liquid which means it rises up the glass.
Module 2.1
Brownian motion – a particle (such as dust particle)

moves randomly, because of collisions with air molecules Buckled railway lines caused by thermal expansion during
Solids excessive summer temperatures
Properties Why they are like this
Gases
They have a fixed shape and The particles cannot move Properties Why they are like this
cannot flow from place to place
They flow and completely fill The particles can
They cannot be compressed The particles are close
their container move quickly in all directions
or squashed together and have no space
to move into They can be compressed or The particles are far apart
squashed and have space to move into
Liquids
Properties Why they are like this
hey flow and take the shape The particles are free
of their container to move around each other
They cannot be compressed The particles are close
or squashed together and have no space
to move into
A liquid thermometer works by thermal expansion

Module 2.1
Acids and alkalis
Acids Alkalis
Properties of acids: Properties of alkalis:
 They are liquids.  They feel soapy to touch.
 They are solutions of compounds in water.  They are soluble bases.
 If concentrated they can be corrosive.  Like acids, they can burn the skin.
 Acids taste sour (for example, vinegar).  They turn red litmus blue - this is how you test for an
 Turn blue litmus paper red - this is an easy test for an alkali!
acid!  Alkalis contain hydroxide ions (OH-).
 Usually, react with metals to form salts.  They taste bitter.
 Acids contain hydrogen ions.  Turns Universal Indicator from green to blue or purple.
 Turn Universal Indicator from green to red, and have a
pH less than 7. Some common alkalis used in and around aircraft:
Examples of acids: are vinegar (ethanoic acid) and lemon  Sodium hydroxide, NaOH
juice (citric acid)  Ammonia, NH3NH4OH
 Calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2
Some common acids used in and around aircraft:
 Hydrochloric acid, HCl

 Nitric acid, HNO3
 Sulphuric acid, H2SO4

Module 2.1
A lead acid battery contains sulphuric acid A nickel cadmium (Ni-Cad)

battery contains
potassium hydroxide (an
alkali)

Module 2.1
The pH scale
Acids and alkalis can be strong or weak.
The strength of an acid or alkali is shown using a scale of

numbers called the pH scale. The numbers go from 0-14.
On the scale:
 An acidic solution has a pH number less than 7

 An alkaline solution has a pH number greater than 7
 A neutral solution has a pH number of exactly 7.
You can find the pH of any solution using universal indicator.

Universal indicator is a mixture of dyes. It comes as a solution
or in paper.
Universal indicator will change from green to a different colour

depending on the pH of the solution you place it in.
What Makes Something Acidic? | Chemistry for All | The

Fuse School
https://youtu.be/RnyB2qbQtHk
What makes things alkali? | Chemistry for All | The

Fuse School
https://youtu.be/zYGnq7-_L9w
What is the pH scale | Chemistry for All |

FuseSchool https://youtu.be/ckbsHM2igT0

Module 2.1
pH scale

Module 2.1


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Part-66 Knowledge Levels

Mideast Aviation Academy 1-2 Issue 02 – Revision 00

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 All matter is composed of indivisible particles called atoms.

The law of conservation of mass is a direct consequence of

Mideast Aviation Academy 1-7 Issue 02 – Revision 00

Scientists use the word ‘charge’ to represent the property

 like charges repel (meaning the same charges push

Mideast Aviation Academy 1-8 Issue 02 – Revision 00

The sub-atomic components of atoms

Electrons, neutrons, protons.

Mideast Aviation Academy 1-9 Issue 02 – Revision 00

Mideast Aviation Academy 1-10 Issue 02 – Revision 00

The periodic table of elements

Mideast Aviation Academy 1-11 Issue 02 – Revision 00

Note that an element:

Atoms of different elements have different masses. They are

Mideast Aviation Academy 1-12 Issue 02 – Revision 00

Element, mixture or compound ? | Chemistry for All |

Note that a mixture:

 consists of two or more different elements and/or

Mideast Aviation Academy 1-13 Issue 02 – Revision 00

Chemical synthesis is the name given to the purposeful

Compounds can only be broken down chemically (i.e. by a

Note that a compound:

 consists of atoms of two or more different elements bound

There are at least 118 elements in our known universe. They

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An element consists of atoms

Atoms of an element Molecules of an element Molecules of a Mixture of elements and

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Chemical symbol H2O

The white, grey, and red spheres represent atoms of

Ethanol Glycol ((CH2OH)2)

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Hydrogen peroxide molecule

Water molecule (H2O) and water

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Mass number Before: nitrogen-14 (7p, 7n)

In measuring the mass of objects which we encounter daily,

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Atomic number and mass number notation

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Atomic Mass: Introduction

What’s the Difference between Mass Number and Atomic

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Atomic number and mass number notation on

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Our knowledge about the structure of atoms depends on the

Electrons within an atom have definite energies. The electrons

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The atomic structure of helium and neon

Electron shell (orbit) designation

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