2.2.2 Mechanics - Kinetics - A B2 B3 - Issue 02

Licence Category A, B2 and B3
Physics
Module 2.2.2
Certification Statement and Objectives
These Study Notes comply with the syllabus of EASA
Regulation (EU) No. 1321/2014 Annex III (Part-66) Appendix I,
its amendment, and the associated Knowledge Levels as
specified below:
Part-66 Knowledge Levels

Objective
Ref. A B1 B2 B3
Mechanics 2.2
Kinetics 2.2.2 1 2 1 1
Linear movement:
uniform motion in a
straight line, motion
under constant
acceleration (motion
under gravity);
Rotational movement:
uniform circular motion
(centrifugal/centripetal
forces);
Periodic motion:
pendula movement;
Simple theory of
vibration, harmonics
and resonance;
Velocity ratio,
mechanical advantage
and efficiency
Mideast Aviation Academy 2.2-2 Issue 02 – Revision 00
© Copyright 2021 FOR TRAINING PURPOSE ONLY May 2021
Module 2.2.2
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Module 2.2.2
Table of Contents
Linear movement
6 Rotational movement
10 Centrifugal / centripetal forces
14 Periodic motion and pendula movement
16 Simple theory of vibration, harmonics and resonance
18 Velocity ratio, mechanical advantage and efficiency
22 Simple machines
24 Gear trains and gear ratios
36

Module 2.2.2

Module 2.2.2
2.2.2 Kinetics
Linear movement
In this section, we deal with uniform motion in a straight Distance = Velocity x Time
line, and motion under constant acceleration, including There is a formula dealing with the motion of a body that you
motion under gravity. have used for many years. In school, you probably memorised
the formula in these words:
When a body is moving in a straight line with constant speed it
is not accelerating. We say, in this case, that it is moving with Distance = Velocity x Time
constant velocity. If a body’s velocity is not constant, it is
accelerating. A body accelerates if it is changing its speed Using our above symbols, we could write:
and/or its direction.
(1) s = Vavt
When we discuss a body’s straight-line motion, then we do not
have any change in direction. In this special case, any Note that for the rate, we have used the
acceleration is due to a change in speed. average speed. We all know that even though sometimes
speed changes, we can always talk about the average speed.
The equations of motion Thus, if we travel at an average speed of 50 mph for 6 hours,
In all of the following discussion, certain symbols will be used. we cover 300 miles.
These symbols are summarized below:
Acceleration = change in velocity divided
 Vav = average velocity
by time
 t = time Now we must extend our treatment of
 u = initial velocity motion to include the concept of acceleration. Acceleration
 v = final velocity (for straight-line motion) is the rate of change of speed in time.
 a = acceleration We define acceleration (for straight-line motion) in the
 s = distance covered* following manner:
In using this formula, a may be either positive or negative. If v
*Note: ‘s’ is the traditional notation for distance in almost all is less than u, then our value of a turns out to be a negative
number. (2)
physics textbooks. This choice reduces confusion with
the symbol ‘d’ for derivative, a concept from calculus.

Module 2.2.2
Example: Velocity change = Acceleration x Time
A little thought will convince you that an acceleration is
A truck is initially travelling at a speed of 50 ft/sec. The driver positive if the body is increasing speed and negative when the
applies his brakes for 15 seconds. The final speed of the car is body is decreasing its speed.
20 ft/sec. What is the acceleration?
Velocity change = Acceleration x Time
v – u = at
If we rearrange this:
(3) v = u + at
Average velocity = Sum of Initial velocity and Final

velocity divided by 2
If a car is on a motorway and the driver is increasing speed
smoothly and regularly, we note that his average speed is the
average of his initial and final speed.
Note: that the unit of acceleration has the square of a time unit The equation can be written:
in its denominator.
Distance covered = average velocity x time

If this value of Vav is substituted into equation (1), we have:
(4)
When a body in straight line motion is not changing speed, or

in cases where we are interested only in the average speed,
the formula is more simple.
S = Vavt

Module 2.2.2
Motion under gravity
Common experience indicates that falling bodies accelerate or
increase in speed as they fall. Close to the surface of the
earth this ‘acceleration of a freely falling body’ has been
measured to be 32 ft/sec2 in the imperial system and 9.8
m/sec2 in the metric system.
When we use the words ‘freely falling’, we mean that we are

neglecting the effects of air resistance (as if we were in a
vacuum). Of course, there is always air resistance, so how
can we neglect it?
When a body is falling with a great speed, air resistance can

certainly not be neglected. To use the acceleration formulas in
these cases would give us results that are not valid. However,
if a body is falling close to the surface of the earth, the
acceleration formulas do give us valid results if the height from
which it falls is not too great.
The value of the acceleration will be either 9.8 m/sec2 or

32 ft/sec2 if the body is rising and therefore decreasing its
speed the values of the acceleration will be -9.8 m/sec2
or -32 ft/sec2.

Module 2.2.2
Sir Isaak Newton determined the rate of

acceleration of an object falling under gravity
Galileo, at Pisa, showed that all masses fall at the same rate

Module 2.2.2
Rotational movement Angular velocity and acceleration
In this section, we deal with uniform circular motion, If the point moves with constant speed it also has a constant
including angular velocity. That is, the line drawn from the point to the
centrifugal / centripetal acceleration centre of the circle sweeps out a definite number of
revolutions, radians, or degrees each second or minute. The
Previously we discussed constant speed and accelerated symbol used to represent angular velocity is the Greek letter
motion in a straight line and derived four important formulas omega ().
which will be reviewed below. In this section, we will consider
motion which takes place on a circular path. Such motion is Angular velocity can be expressed in different units, such as,
very common in our complex society and we need to
understand more about motion in curved paths.
Angular distance
Before we begin our discussion, we need to define a new unit
for measuring angles, the radian (see figure below).
It is also possible that the point is not moving with constant
A radian is defined as the central angle subtending a length of
angular velocity. It may be increasing or decreasing its angular
arc equal to the radius of the circle.
velocity. When a CD starts rotating in a CD drive the angular
A radian is approximately equal to 57.3°. The conversion velocity increases until it reaches a constant value. After the
factors for angle units are: reject button is pushed the angular velocity decreases until the
CD comes to rest.
1 revolution = 360°
1 revolution = 2 radians In both of the above cases we say that the point has an
2 radians = 360° angular acceleration. The Greek letter alpha () is used for
1 radian = 57.3° angular acceleration. Note that  is positive if the angular
velocity is increasing and negative if the angular velocity is
Now let us consider a body (represented by a point) moving in decreasing.
a circular path. An initial reference line is shown in the figure
below right. As the point moves about the circle in a counter- Angular acceleration can also be expressed in different units,
clockwise sense, a line drawn between the point and the
centre of the circle continuously sweeps out an angle. This
angle can be measured in revolutions, radians or degrees. We
call this angle the angular displacement of the point and use
the Greek letter theta () to represent this angular
displacement.
Module 2.2.2
A point moving in a circle

Module 2.2.2
Arc distance
In the figure below, ‘s’ is the length along the path. We would The tangential acceleration (a) in the left side is the rate at
like to relate this distance to the size of the central angle () which a body moving in a circular path is picking up speed in
and the radius (R) of the circular path. In our preceding the path. It is equal to the radius times the angular
discussion, the angle () was measured in any of three acceleration ().
different units, degrees, revolutions, or radians.
Let us summarize the three important equations we have
The equation that relates s to  and R is a very simple one if derived:
we limit the angular unit to radians. This equation is:
s = R
s = R v = R
a = R
We see that this equation is true if we look at the figure below.
We note, by measuring, that the equation is satisfied. We also All three of these equations require the use of radian measure.
see that it would not be true if the angle  was in revolutions or This means that:
degrees.
 must be in radians
Tangential velocity  must be in rad/min or rad/sec
Let us divide both sides of this equation by the time, (t)  must be in rad/min2 or rad/sec2
during which the motion occurred.
We can write:
v = R
Tangential acceleration
If this velocity in the path is changing, there is also a change in
the angular velocity. Assume that this change occurs in
the
small time interval (t).
We can write:
a = R

Module 2.2.2
s, R and 
A horse being trained walks in a circle. The horse has a

tangential velocity, whilst the trainer has an angular velocity.
The two variables are linked by the length of the rope

Module 2.2.2
Centrifugal / centripetal forces
Consider a ball on a string is being swung around in a circle. The centripetal force is the force created by the friction of the
The ball is continually changing direction as it moves in a tyres on the road and acts towards the centre of the
circle. The ball would prefer to follow a straight path, and that roundabout. Providing the car is not skidding off the
for it to deviate from a straight path, a force must be applied roundabout, the centrifugal force and the centripetal force is
to it. equal and opposite to each other.
A hammer thrower (figure below) must continually pull towards

the centre of rotation, applying his full weight to make the
hammer accelerate continually towards the centre of rotation.
As soon as the athlete stops applying the force towards the
centre (i.e. releases the hammer) the hammer travels in a
straight line, at a tangent to the circle.
This acceleration is in the same direction as the force which

makes it move in a circle. This force is called centripetal
force (from the Latin meaning centre-seeking)
Centrifugal force (Latin for "centre fleeing") describes the

tendency of an object following a curved path to fly outwards,
away from the centre of the curve. It is not really a force; it
results from inertia — the tendency of an object to resist any
change in its state of rest or motion. Centripetal force is a real
force that counteracts the centrifugal force and prevents the
object from "flying out," keeping it moving instead with a
uniform speed along a circular path.
Consider a car going around a roundabout at speed as shown

below. The centrifugal force is the tendancy for the car to
continue in a straight line, tangential to the circle of the
roundabout. This can be felt by the occupants of the car as a
force pulling them to the side of the vehicle, away from the
centre of rotation.

Module 2.2.2
Centrifugal
force
Centripetal
force
Centripetal force exerted by a hammer thrower

Module 2.2.2
Periodic motion and pendula movement
In this section, we deal with pendula movement. This Mass and spring
includes simple pendulums and the motion of spring/mass When a mass is acted upon by an elastic force which tends to
systems. bring it back to its equilibrium position, and when that force is
proportional to the distance from equilibrium (e.g., doubles
Pendula movement when the distance from equilibrium doubles – a Hooke’s law
A simple pendulum is one which can be a point mass force), then the object will undergo periodic motion when
suspended from a string or rod of negligible mass. It is a released.
resonant system with a single resonant frequency. For small
amplitudes, the time period (T) is the time it takes to swing A mass on a spring is the standard example of such periodic
from one extremity of travel to the other extremity (e.g. from motion. If the displacement of the mass is plotted as a function
left to right) and back. This time period depends only on the of time, it will trace out a pure sine wave. The motion of the
length of the pendulum and the magnitude of acceleration medium in a travelling wave is also simple harmonic motion as
due to gravity the wave passes a given point in the medium.
Note: The natural frequency of oscillation is independent of It is interesting to note that the spring/mass system will
the mass of the pendulum, and of the amount of initial oscillate at only one frequency, regardless of how far the
displacement. mass is initially displaced, or for how long the system is left to
oscillate. The only factor that changes, is the linear velocity of
It is interesting to note that the pendulum will oscillate at only the mass. The fixed frequency is known as the natural
one frequency, regardless of how far the pendulum is initially frequency of oscillation, and depends only on the stiffness of
displaced, or for how long the pendulum is left to oscillate. the spring, and the mass.
This fixed frequency is known as the natural frequency of
oscillation. Note: The natural frequency of oscillation is independent of
the magnitude of gravity, and of the amount of initial
Time period (T) and frequency (f) can also be related to each displacement.
other by the formulae:

Module 2.2.2
Motion of a spring/mass system
A simple pendulum
The adjustment of the time-keeping of a

pendulum clock depends only on the Vehicle suspension
length of the pendulum, and is independent systems are examples
of the mass of the pendulum of spring/mass
systems

Module 2.2.2
Simple theory of vibration, harmonics and resonance
Vibration
Vibration refers to mechanical oscillations about an equilibrium
point. The oscillations may be periodic such as the motion of
a pendulum or random such as the movement of a tyre on an
uneven road.
Vibration is occasionally desirable. For example, the motion of

a tuning fork, the reed in a woodwind instrument or harmonica,
or the cone of a loudspeaker is desirable vibration, necessary
for the correct functioning of the various devices.
More often, vibration is undesirable, wasting energy and

creating unwanted sound – noise. For example, the vibrational
motions of engines, electric motors, or any mechanical device
in operation are typically unwanted. Such vibrations can be
caused by imbalances in the rotating parts, uneven friction, the
meshing of gear teeth, etc. Careful designs usually minimise
unwanted vibrations.
The study of sound and vibration are closely related. Sound,

pressure waves, are generated by vibrating structures (e.g.
vocal cords) and pressure waves can generate vibration of
structures (e.g. ear drum). Hence, when trying to reduce noise
it is often a problem in trying to reduce vibration.

Module 2.2.2
Any complex machine which has rotating

components is prone to vibration problems
Prolonged exposure to vibration can

cause physiological problems

Module 2.2.2
Resonance
What is resonance? Harmonics

Resonance is the phenomenon of producing large amplitude The harmonic of an oscillation is a component frequency of
of vibrations by a small periodic driving force. It is the the oscillation that is a multiple of its natural frequency (known
tendency of a system to oscillate at maximum amplitude at a as the fundamental frequency). For example, if the
certain frequency. fundamental frequency is f, the harmonics have frequency 2f,
3f, 4f, etc. The harmonics have the property that they are all
This frequency is known as the system’s resonance frequency periodic at the input frequency.
(or resonant frequency). When damping is small, the
resonance frequency is approximately equal to the natural Thus, if an oscillating body (e.g. a spring/mass system) can be
frequency of the system, which is the frequency of free oscillated by an excitation input of frequency equal to its
vibrations. Under resonance condition the energy supplied by natural frequency (the ‘fundamental frequency’), it will also be
the driving force is sufficient enough to overcome friction. oscillated at frequencies that are harmonics of that natural
frequency.
Examples of resonance
One familiar example is a playground swing, which is a crude Resonance
pendulum. When pushing someone in a swing, pushes that https://youtu.be/XwTwTc9yQY8
are timed with the correct interval between them (the resonant
frequency), will make the swing go higher and higher
(maximum amplitude), while attempting to push the swing at a
faster or slower rate will result in much smaller arcs.
Other examples:
 acoustic resonances of musical instruments

 the oscillations of the balance wheel in a mechanical
watch
 electrical resonance of tuned circuits in radios that allow
individual stations to be picked up
 the shattering of crystal glasses when exposed to a
strong enough sound that causes the glass to
resonate.

Module 2.2.2
Pushing a child on a swing is an example of

resonance. The push impulses are timed to be in
phase with the natural frequency of the swing

Module 2.2.2
Velocity ratio, mechanical advantage and efficiency
Simple machines and the principle of work The efficiency can be expressed as a decimal or as a
The definition of work is as follows: percentage. For example, if the efficiency is calculated as
0.78, we can express it as 78%.
Work = Force x Distance
One point should be made regarding efficiency. There is no
W = FD machine that is 100% efficient. We always have some friction.
However, sometimes we assume that there is no friction and
The symbol for ‘distance’ has been switched from S to D, to that the machine is perfect or ideal! If a problem says that the
emphasize that we are dealing with distances in our treatment efficiency is 100%, we are doing a make-believe problem. This
of simple machines. kind of a problem is not meaningless, however, because it
In this chapter, we will study six simple machines: tells us the best that this machine can do.
 The lever Introduction to mechanical advantage | Work and energy

 The pulley | Physics | Khan Academy
 The wheel and axle https://youtu.be/pfzJ-z5Ij48
 The inclined aeroplane Mechanical advantage (part 2) | Work and energy | Physics
 The screw | Khan Academy
 The hydraulic press https://youtu.be/DiBXxWBrV24
Velocity ratio
Efficiency Velocity ratio is also defined as the ratio of a distance through
The efficiency (Eff) of a machine is the ratio of the output which any part of a machine moves, to that which the driving
work to the input work. part moves during the same time.
Note that it is the ratio of the output to the input ‘distances’ (not
velocities). This is because velocity is the distance divided by
time, and since the time period in which the machine’s input
moves is the same as the time period in which the machine’s
output moves, when the velocities are divided to calculate the
ratio, the time will cancel, leaving simply a ratio of the output to
the input distances.

Module 2.2.2

Module 2.2.2
Simple machines
We will next consider six simple machines. In each of these
cases the IMA is expressed, not as the ratio Di/Do, but in some other
manner. We will study the geometry of each of these simple
machines to determine how to express the IMA in some
simple equation.
The lever
Consider the diagram in the figure below. Note that the lever
always pivots about some point called the fulcrum. The input
force (F1) is downward force and in our diagram, is applied at the right
end of the lever. This input force gives rise to an upward force
at the left end in our diagram. This upward force causes the
load to be raised and is called ‘Fo’.
In the figure below, note that the input force acts through a
distance (Di) and the load is raised a distance (Do).
The distance from the input end of the lever to the fulcrum is
called the input lever arm (Li) and the distance from the output end to
the fulcrum is called the output lever arm (Lo).
The lever gives a mechanical advantage in that the load that

can be lifted is greater than the effort applied. The mechanical
advantage is the ratio of the load to eth effort.
However, the distance that the effort needs to be moved, is

proportionately greater than the distance that the load is
moved in the same time period. The ratio of distance of the
input to the distance moved of the output is the same ratio as
that of the load to the effort forces.
Hence, it can be seen, that the work done (Force x Distance)

is theAviation
Mideast sameAcademy
for both
the input and the output. 2.2-24 Issue 02 – Revision 00
Module 2.2.2
Simple lever system
Distances moved in a simple lever system

Examples of the use of levers

Module 2.2.2
The pulley
Some pulleys are firmly attached to an overhead support while Several other examples of various types of pulley blocks are
other pulleys move up or down with the load. We will refer to shown in the figures D, E and F.
pulleys as ‘fixed’ or ‘movable’.
In figure (A), we have shown a single fixed pulley. If a length of
pulley cord (Di) is pulled down by a worker, the load will be raised a
distance (Do). We see from the diagram that these distances equal
each other. Therefore, we conclude that the IMA of this type
of pulley is one. For example, it would take 100 lbs of force
to raise a 100 lbs load. The advantage of using this type of
pulley is that the worker is able to pull down on the pulley cord
and in this way an upward force is applied to the load. We say
that a single fixed pulley is a ‘direction changer’.
In figure (B), there is a single movable pulley. A study of the

diagram shows that Di is always twice Do. For example, if the load is to
be raised 2 ft. the worker must pull in 4 ft. of cord.
Note also that there are 2 strands supporting the load. The
mechanical advantage of a single movable pulley is 2.
In figure (C), there is a single movable pulley and a single

fixed pulley. The fixed pulley again serves to change the
direction of the input force. The mechanical advantage is still
2. Note also that there are again 2 strands supporting the
load.
We conclude that the mechanical advantage of a pulley

equals the number of strands supporting the load.
Mechanical advantage
= number of strands supporting the load (pulley)

Module 2.2.2
Simple pulley systems
Pulley systems are frequently used in

mountaineering and rescue etc.
More complex pulley systems

Module 2.2.2
The wheel and axle (windlass)
Note that one cord is wrapped around the axle of radius (r).
The load is attached to this cord. Another cord is wrapped
around the wheel of radius (R). The worker applies his force
to this second cord.
Both wheel and axle turn together. This means that if the
wheel rotates through one revolution the axle also turns
through one revolution.
Let us suppose that the worker pulls in a length of cord equal

to one circumference of the wheel. The load will be raised a
distance equal one circumference of the axle.
The mechanical advantage of a wheel and axle is the ratio of

these two circumferences, which can be reduced to the ratio of
the wheel radius (R) to the axle radius (r).

Module 2.2.2
Wheel and axle
Some examples of wheel and axles

Module 2.2.2
The inclined plane
In the inclined plane shown in the figure below we note that
the worker slides the load up the incline. The input distance is
therefore equal to the length of the incline (L). The effect of
this is that the load is raised a distance (h).
The mechanical advantage of an inclined plane is the ratio of

the inclined length (L) to the height raised (h).
Inclined planes are used for their mechanical advantage in

many forms, such as a straight staircase, a spiral staircase
and even a screw thread.

Module 2.2.2
Inclined plane
Some examples of inclined planes

Module 2.2.2
The screw jack
The screw jack is a development of the inclined plane.
The pitch of the screw (p) is the distance between adjacent

threads (figure below). As the handle is turned through one
revolution, a distance given by 2r, the load is raised a
distance of one pitch.
A screw jack has a great deal of friction. Therefore, its

efficiency is usually very low. However, the distance through
which the input force acts in comparison to the pitch is usually
very large. This gives a screw jack a large mechanical
advantage.

Module 2.2.2
The hydraulic press
The hydraulic car jack works on the principle of the hydraulic press

Module 2.2.2
The hydraulic press
A cross section of a hydraulic press is shown in the figure
below. The small rectangles are cross sections of the circular
input and output pistons. Usually, we talk about the areas of
the input and output pistons (Ai and Ao). We note that the smaller of
the two pistons is the input piston (radius = r) and, of course,
the larger piston is the output piston (radius = R).
A hydraulic press is filled with some fluid (gas or liquid). This

fluid exerts a common fluid pressure throughout the device.
The mechanical advantage of the hydraulic press depends
upon the relative areas of the input and output pistons. Since
area is πr2 then the mechanical advantage is simply the ratio
of the piston radii squared; R2 to r2.
Simple Machines
https://youtu.be/loBkujpoow0

Module 2.2.2
The common fly press and vice in

a metalwork shop both work on The screw jack
the principle of the screw jack

Module 2.2.2
Gear trains and gear ratios
The illustration shows two meshed spur gears of different

sizes. This is a simple gear train, with one wheel on each
shaft. The smaller, 9 toothed pinion, will have to turn two
revolutions for each revolution of the larger 18 toothed wheel
and so when the wheel is used as the driver (input) gear
output motion will be faster than the input. In this case:
Velocity Ratio =
Angular movement of driver gear (input)

Angular movement of driven gear (output)
=½
or
The velocity ratio for a gear system is usually referred to as

the gear ratio and the above value would be quoted as a
gear ration of 1:2. It equals the ratio of the speeds of the
driving and driven gears.
Sometimes the gear ratio is defined as the ratio of the driven

gear speed to that of the driver. To avoid confusion, the gear
ratio should be clearly specified.

Module 2.2.2

Module 2.2.2


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Licence Category A, B2 and B3

Part-66 Knowledge Levels

“THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK”

Mideast Aviation Academy 2.2-3 Issue 02 – Revision 00

Mideast Aviation Academy 2.2-4 Issue 02 – Revision 00

“THIS PAGE INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK”

Mideast Aviation Academy 2.2-5 Issue 02 – Revision 00

Mideast Aviation Academy 2.2-6 Issue 02 – Revision 00

Average velocity = Sum of Initial velocity and Final

Distance covered = average velocity x time

When a body in straight line motion is not changing speed, or

Mideast Aviation Academy 2.2-7 Issue 02 – Revision 00

When we use the words ‘freely falling’, we mean that we are

When a body is falling with a great speed, air resistance can

The value of the acceleration will be either 9.8 m/sec2 or

Mideast Aviation Academy 2.2-8 Issue 02 – Revision 00

Sir Isaak Newton determined the rate of

Mideast Aviation Academy 2.2-9 Issue 02 – Revision 00

A point moving in a circle

Mideast Aviation Academy 2.2-11 Issue 02 – Revision 00

Mideast Aviation Academy 2.2-12 Issue 02 – Revision 00

A horse being trained walks in a circle. The horse has a

Mideast Aviation Academy 2.2-13 Issue 02 – Revision 00

A hammer thrower (figure below) must continually pull towards

This acceleration is in the same direction as the force which

Centrifugal force (Latin for "centre fleeing") describes the

Consider a car going around a roundabout at speed as shown

Mideast Aviation Academy 2.2-14 Issue 02 – Revision 00

Centripetal force exerted by a hammer thrower

Mideast Aviation Academy 2.2-15 Issue 02 – Revision 00

Mideast Aviation Academy 2.2-16 Issue 02 – Revision 00

Motion of a spring/mass system

The adjustment of the time-keeping of a

Mideast Aviation Academy 2.2-17 Issue 02 – Revision 00

Vibration is occasionally desirable. For example, the motion of

More often, vibration is undesirable, wasting energy and

The study of sound and vibration are closely related. Sound,

Mideast Aviation Academy 2.2-18 Issue 02 – Revision 00

Any complex machine which has rotating

Prolonged exposure to vibration can

Mideast Aviation Academy 2.2-19 Issue 02 – Revision 00

What is resonance? Harmonics

 acoustic resonances of musical instruments

Mideast Aviation Academy 2.2-20 Issue 02 – Revision 00

Pushing a child on a swing is an example of

Mideast Aviation Academy 2.2-21 Issue 02 – Revision 00

 The lever Introduction to mechanical advantage | Work and energy

Mideast Aviation Academy 2.2-22 Issue 02 – Revision 00

Mideast Aviation Academy 2.2-23 Issue 02 – Revision 00

the fulcrum is called the output lever arm (Lo).

The lever gives a mechanical advantage in that the load that

However, the distance that the effort needs to be moved, is

Hence, it can be seen, that the work done (Force x Distance)

Simple lever system

Distances moved in a simple lever system

Mideast Aviation Academy 2.2-25 Issue 02 – Revision 00

In figure (B), there is a single movable pulley. A study of the

In figure (C), there is a single movable pulley and a single

We conclude that the mechanical advantage of a pulley