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 Neuroanatomy

• I s the study of the structural aspects of

the nervous system

• The nervous system controls and

monitors the function of different parts
of the body
 Divisions of the nervous system
Brain

I. Central Nervous System (CNS)

Spinal cord

II. Peripheral Nervous System

Peripheral nerves and the

ganglia associated with them
Brain
I. Cerebrum (2 large cerebral hemispheres)
II. Cerebellum
III. Brainstem-
a) Midbrain
b) Pons
c) Medulla oblongata

The medulla oblongata continues below

with the spinal cord
 Brain Organization

• Telencephalon-cerebral hemispheres
• Diencephalon-thalamus,
hypothalamus, epithalamus
• Mesencephalon-midbrain
• Metencephalon-pons, cerebellum
• Myelencephalon-medulla oblongata
• The peripheral nerves attached to the
brain are called cranial nerves

• Those attached to the spinal cord are

called spinal nerves

• Peripheral nerves include those that

supply skin, body wall, muscles, limbs,
(these nerves are often called cerebrospinal
nerves)
• Nerves supplying the viscera along with
parts of the brain and spinal cord
associated with them constitute the
Autonomic nervous system (no conscious
control)

• The ANS can be divided into sympathetic

and parasympathetic system
Tissues constituting the nervous system

• Nervous tissue consists of two main types

of cell:
Neurons (nerve cells)
Neuroglia (glia cells that support the
neurons)
• The neuron is the structural and functional
unit of the nervous system
• It is specialized for rapid communication
 The neuron
• Is composed of a cell
body & processes
(dendrites) and an axon-
that carry impulses to
and away from the cell
body
• Myelin-layers of lipid and
protein substances-form
myelin sheath around
some axons (greatly ↑
velocity of impulse
conduction)
• Myelin – a layer of proteins that are wrapped
around the axon.
• Two functions: to protect the axon, and to
speed up transmission
• Without myelin, neural transmission is
inefficient
• Multiple Sclerosis – an autoimmune disorder
in which the myelin is destroyed.
– Fatigue, pain, motor disorders, cognitive disorders,
etc.
 Neuronal communication
 Neurons are the information/signal relay system of our
nervous system
 Once stimulated neurons need to conduct information
in two ways:
1. From one end of a neuron to the other end.
2. Across the minute space separating one neuron
from another neuron/muscle end plate (synaptic
cleft).
 The 1st is accomplished electrically via Action
Potential generation.
 The 2nd is accomplished chemically via
neurotransmitters
• Neurons communicate with each other
at synapses-points of contact between
neurons
• The communication occurs by means of
neurotransmitters- chemical agents
released or secreted by one neuron
which may excite or inhibit another
neuron
• Neuroglia are non-neuronal,
nonexcitable cells that form a major
component of nervous tissue-
supporting, insulating and nourishing
the neurons.
• CNS- oligodendroglia cells, astrocytes,
ependymal cells etc
• PNS- satellite cells, Schwann cells
 Parts of the Brain
• 3 major divisions
1. Hindbrain:
Cerebellum; Pons;
Medulla
2. Forebrain: Cortex,
amygdala,
hippocampus,
thalamus,
hypothalamus
3. Midbrain
 Hindbrain
• Cerebellum: Extremely large area, millions of
neurons
– Responsible for coordination of movement
– Plays a role in learning
• Pons
– Important for sleep and especially dreaming
• Medulla
– Controls all vital functions of the body including
breathing and heart rate
 Forebrain
• Thalamus
– Primary relay station of the brain
– Almost all sensory information passes through
before going elsewhere
• Hypothalamus
– Regulates autonomic nervous system
– Regulates hormones, “4 F’s”; Feeding, Fighting,
Fleeing, and sexual behavior
• Amygdala
– Responsible for many aspects of emotion
– Emotional learning
• Hippocampus
– Especially important for learning and memory
– Resolving conflict
• Cerebral Cortex
– Does just about everything
– Many think that the cortex is what makes
humans the way they are
– Cortex is broken up into 4 lobes:
• Frontal lobe: the front of the brain
• Temporal lobe: side, the temples
• Parietal lobe: middle portion
• Occipital Lobe: very back
• Frontal lobe
– Important for planning
– Thinking / decision making
– Primary motor cortex: Generation of
movement
– Broca’s area: Production of Speech
• Temporal lobe
– Audition
– Wernicke’s area: Language comprehension
• Parietal lobe
– Somatosensory function (touch,
vibration, pain)
– Combination of all senses with vision
• Occipital lobe
– Vision: Primary visual cortex
 Two Halves of the Brain
• Brain is actually two
different halves. It is split
down the middle, with
the right and left side
being very similar to the
other
• The two hemispheres are
connected by the corpus
callosum: a bunch of
axons
• Each side of the brain controls the opposite
side of the body.
– Ex. Moving right arm controlled by the
left side of the brain.
• Systematic differences in right vs. left.
• Most language and music on the left.
– Somewhat different for left-handed
people
• The right hemisphere more involved with
visual imagery and creativity.
 Studying the Brain of Humans
• EEG: electroencephalogram – electrodes
are placed on the scalp.
– It records the electrical activity of
neurons.
– Problem: It records from thousands of
neurons at a time; not very precise
EEG printout
• “CAT” scan: Computerized tomography
– Computer enhanced 3-D X-Rays
– Not much resolution, still life
• MRI: Magnetic resonance imaging
• – uses magnetic fields to
get brain scans
– Just get a picture
• PET scan: Positron Emission Tomography
– patients are injected with radioactive
glucose. The scanner tracks where the
glucose moves to. This is used as an
indicator of neural activity.
- Has problems: very expensive,
resolution is fairly low.
• Functional MRI (fMRI) – Registers
changes in the metabolism of cells
– Get 3-D picture of real time brain
activity
– Very expensive
CLASSIFICATION
FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION
BASED ON CONDUCTION DIRECTION
 Afferent neurons –
– Also called sensory neurons.
– Convey information from tissues and
organs into the CNS
– Efferent neurons –
– Also called motor neurons.
– Carry nerve impulses away from the CNS
to effectors such as muscles or glands.
– According to their targets, motor neurons
are classified into three broad categories:
Somatic motor neurons, Special visceral
motor neurons, General visceral motor
neurons.

– Somatic motor neurons are further divided

in to α motor neuron (innervating
extrafusal muscle fibre) and γ motor
neuron (innervating intrafusal muscle fibre)
 Interneuron-
– also called as relay neuron or local circuit
neuron.
– connects afferent neurons and efferent
neurons in neural pathways.
 BASED ON NEUROTRANSMITTER PRODUCTION

 Cholinergic neurons —secreting acetylcholine

 GABAergic neurons — secreting gamma
aminobutyric acid.
 Glutamatergic neuron — secreting glutamate
 Dopaminergic neurons — secreting dopamine
. Loss of dopamine neurons in the substantia
nigra has been linked to Parkinson's disease
 Serotonergic neurons — secreting serotonin.
A lack of serotonin at postsynaptic neurons
has been linked to depression.
BASED ON UNIQUE SHAPE AND
FUNCTION

 Betz cells – large motor neurons located within

the fifth layer of the grey matter in the primary
motor cortex, M1.
 Purkinje cells - some of the largest neurons in
the human brain, found within the Purkinje
layer in the cerebellum.
 Renshaw cells - neurons with both ends linked
to alpha motor neurons. Target of the toxin
of Clostridium tetani
 Pyramidal neurons (pyramidal cells) - type of neurons
with triangular soma found in areas of the brain
including cerebral cortex, the hippocampus, and in
the amygdala.
 Basket cells - inhibitory GABAergic interneurons found
in several brain regions: the molecular layer of
the cerebellum, the hippocampus, and the cortex.
 Classification of Neurons
Structural

• Bipolar-single dendrite & unmyelinated

axon; rare;special senses.
• Unipolar-continuous dendritic/axonal
processes; PNS sensory
neurons/myelinated neurons.
• Multipolar-Most common (99%); all
skeletal muscle motor neurons;
myelinated axons.
 Classification of Neurons
Functional
• Sensory(afferent)-Unipolar, soma located in
sensory ganglia outside CNS; only most distal
parts act as impulse receptor sites.
• Motor (efferent)-Carry impulses away from
CNS to effector organs (muscles/glands);
multipolar, soma located in CNS.
• Interneurons-Lie between motor and sensory
neurons; confined within CNS.
 The CNS
• The principal roles of the CNS is to:
– Integrate and coordinate incoming and outgoing
neural signals
– Carry out higher mental functions like thinking and
learning
A collection of nerve bodies in the CNS is
a nucleus
A bundle of nerve fibres (axons)
connecting neighbouring or distant
nuclei of the CNS is a tract.
• Sections thru the brain and spinal cord
reveal that they are composed of gray
mater and white mater.

• Nerve cell bodies lie within and

constitute the gray mater

• The interconnecting fibre tact system

form the white mater
 The PNS
• The PNS consists of nerve fibres and cell
bodies outside the CNS that conduct
impulses to or away from the CNS.
• The PNS is made up of nerve that
connect the CNS with peripheral
structures
• A bundle of nerve fibres (axons) in the
PNS held together by a CT sheath is a
peripheral nerve
• A collection of nerve cell bodies outside the
CNS is a ganglion
• Peripheral nerves are either cranial or spinal
nerves.
• Peripheral nerves can be afferent or sensory
fibers-conveying impulses to the CNS from
sense organs (e.g the eyes) and sensory
receptors in various parts of the body.
• Efferent or motor fibres- conveying neural
impulses from the CNS to the effector organs
(e.g muscles and glands)