LOGIC & REASONING Lecture 3 - 4

PHILOSOPHICAL METHODS FOR By Syed Muntazir Mehdi

DISCOVERING TRUTHS
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
By the end of this section, you will be able to:
• Describe the role that dialectics plays in logic and reasoning.
• Define “argument” and “negation of a argument.”
• Define the laws of noncontradiction and the excluded middle.
DIALECTICS AND PHILOSOPHICAL
ARGUMENTATION
1. WHAT IS AN ARGUMENT (IN PHILOSOPHY)?
Not a shouting match - reasoned position with supporting reasons
Goal: Support a conclusion, ultimately leading to truth
Examples: Articles, conferences, presentations, lectures
DIALECTIC VS. DEBATE
Dialectic:
 Discussion with differing views
 Goal: Get closer to truth, not "win"
 Uses logic and reason Every Dialectics Explained in 10 Minutes
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K8MhOo9agPQ
Debate:
 Often adversarial
 May use rhetorical ploys or emotional appeals
THE ART OF DIALECTIC
Begins with a question
Participants (interlocutors) scrutinize answers
Identify weaknesses and counterexamples
Refine answers based on analysis
Iterative process: Each stage brings participants closer to truth
REASONING: A
MULTIFACETED TOOL
Reason allows us to:

Formulate hypotheses (proposed explanations)

Explore consequences of those hypotheses (what would happen if?)
Conduct thought experiments (imagine scenarios to test ideas)
Assess coherence of beliefs (are our ideas consistent with each other?)
Generate plausible explanations (make sense of the world)
REASON AND LOGIC:
PARTNERS IN TRUTH-
SEEKING
Coherence: Consistency within a set of beliefs
Logic: The study of proper reasoning
Connection:
Reason helps us identify inconsistencies in our beliefs.
Logic provides a framework for drawing sound conclusions.
Together, they guide us towards truth.
REASON AND LOGIC:
PARTNERS IN TRUTH-
SEEKING
Imagine you believe two things:
All birds can fly. (This is a general statement)
Ostriches are birds. (This is a specific statement)
These two statements seem to form a coherent set of beliefs. Birds can fly, and ostriches are birds, so logically,
ostriches should also be able to fly. However, this conclusion clashes with reality – ostriches cannot fly.
This is where reason comes in. Reason helps you identify this inconsistency in your belief system. You might ask
yourself, "How can both statements be true if ostriches, which are birds, cannot fly?"
Logic then provides the tools to resolve the inconsistency. Logic allows you to analyze your statements further.
Perhaps you discover there are exceptions to the rule "all birds can fly." Ostriches might be flightless birds, which
would explain the contradiction.
Through this process of reason and logic, you can revise your beliefs to become more coherent:
Revised Belief: Most birds can fly, with some exceptions like ostriches.
This revised belief system is more accurate and reflects the fact that not all birds have the ability to fly.
MATHEMATICS: A MODEL OF
DEDUCTIVE REASONING
Deductive reasoning: Guarantees truth
based on true premises
Math as an example:
2 +2 = 4
Uses known functions and rules
Ensures a true answer if the starting point
(premises) is true
BEYOND MATH: LOGIC IN
EVERYDAY REASONING
Logic is not limited to guaranteeing truth, but helps us find better
answers.
Logic provides tools for:
Identifying inconsistencies
Evaluating arguments
Building strong explanations
FORMULATING
HYPOTHESES: THE
STARTING POINT
Hypothesis: A proposed explanation for an observed
phenomenon
Examples:
Why is that plant often knocked over? (Wind?)
What causes algae growth in the river? (High nitrogen levels?)
Our curiosity about the world leads us to formulate hypotheses – proposed
explanations for observed phenomena. These hypotheses can be formed in various
fields, not just science. For instance, noticing a knocked-over plant might lead you
to hypothesize about the culprit (wind?). Similarly, observing algae growth in a
river might prompt a hypothesis about a contributing factor (high nitrogen levels?).
TESTING HYPOTHESES:
FROM SUPPOSITION TO
KNOWLEDGE
Testing is crucial for evaluating hypotheses
If-then statements (conditionals):
"If it is windy, then my plant will get knocked over"
"If nitrogen levels are high, then algae will
THE LAWS OF LOGIC:
BUILDING BLOCKS OF
THOUGHT
Logic, the foundation of sound reasoning, has its own set of laws. Unlike scientific
laws that describe the natural world, laws of logic act as fundamental rules for
thinking itself. These principles are so crucial that some argue they are essential for
having reliable thoughts. In essence, they are the bedrock of reality within our
minds. Let's delve into two key laws of logic:
the Law of Noncontradiction and
the Law of the Excluded Middle.
UNDERSTANDING THE
BUILDING BLOCKS
Before exploring the laws, let's define key terms:
Statement: A sentence with a truth value (true or false). (e.g.,
"The Earth is round.")
Negation: The denial of a statement. (e.g., "The Earth is not
round.") It often uses "not" (e.g., "My dog is not on the bed").
Contradiction: Combining a statement with its negation. (e.g.,
"The Earth is round and the Earth is not round.")
THE LAW OF
NONCONTRADICTION:
UNVEILING TRUTH
The Law of Noncontradiction states that contradictory
propositions cannot be true at the same time, in the same sense.
In simpler terms, something cannot be both true and false
simultaneously.
Example: It can't be true right now that your dog is both on the
bed and not on the bed.
CLARIFYING "IN THE SAME
SENSE"
The phrase "in the same sense" is crucial in the Law of
Noncontradiction.
Consider a dog lying partially on and off the bed.
If "on the bed" means "at least 50% of the body is on it," then the
dog can still be considered "on the bed."
The negation ("not on the bed") remains false based on our
defined meaning.
THE IMPORTANCE OF THE
LAW OF
NONCONTRADICTION
According to Aristotle, the Law of Noncontradiction is
fundamental.
Without it, knowledge and reasoning would be impossible.
This law underpins various fields, including science, logic, and
even language.
Aristotle considered it the "most certain of all principles" because
it's impossible to believe something is both true and not true at the
same time.
THE IMPORTANCE OF THE
LAW OF
NONCONTRADICTION
According to Aristotle, the Law of Noncontradiction is
fundamental.
Without it, knowledge and reasoning would be impossible.
This law underpins various fields, including science, logic, and
even language.
Aristotle considered it the "most certain of all principles" because
it's impossible to believe something is both true and not true at the
same time.