Ethics in Science Lecture Slides

ETHICS IN SCIENCE
STEPHEN BOATENG
Management Studies
Contact Information: sboateng@umat.edu.gh
COURSE CODE: 451
UNIVERSITY OF MINES AND

TECHNOLOGY
AIM & OBJECTIVES
The aim of this lecture is to provide students with the requisite knowledge and
understanding of ethics and ethical dilemmas confronting scientist (engineers &
researchers) in their field of practice.
The specific objectives of this lecture is to provide leaners with

 comprehensive understanding of ethics in science.
 Appreciate ethical theory and application.
 Provide leaners with adequate information on standards of ethical conduct in
science.
 Provide dialogue through review of hypothetical ethical cases.
Ethics in Science Apr 18, 2024 Slide 2

LEARNING OUTCOME
At the end of the lecture, learners will have the ability to

do the following:
 Review ethical situations and be guided by
professional code of conducts
 Access ethical dilemmas and apply professional
judgment
 Prompt work colleagues on ethical best practices
 Prepare professional code of conduct for a professional
group or department
OVERVIEW
 Science and ethics: An Overview

 Why Study Ethic
 Ethical theory and application
 Standard of ethical conduct in science
 Objectivity in research
 Ethical issues in scientific publication
 Ethical issues in the laboratory
 The scientist in society
 Review of ethical case studies
REFERENCE
1. Resnik, D.B., 2005. The ethics of science: An introduction.

Routledge
2. Wager, E., Fiack, S., Graf, C., Robinson, A. and Rowlands, I., 2009.
Science journal editors’ views on publication ethics: results of an
international survey. Journal of medical ethics, 35(6), pp.348-353.

SCIENCE AND ETHICS: AN OVERVIEW

Need to Study Ethics
• Science has a special role with respect to ethics.

• Society demands high standards of scientists.
• It is not always easy to determine the right thing to do.
• Breaches of scientific ethics make headlines and ruin
careers.
• During the past decade, scientists, laypeople, and
politicians have become increasingly aware of the
importance of ethics in scientific research.
• The press has covered stories on ethical issues raised by
science, such as the United States (US) government’s
secret experiments on human beings during the Cold
War. Apr 18, 2024 Slide 7
Ethics in Science
What is Ethics?
• Ethics are standards of conduct (or social norms) that prescribe

behaviour.
– Standards of conduct do not describe our actual behaviour, since
people often violate widely accepted standards.
– For example, most people in the Ghana accept the idea that one
ought to tell the truth, yet many people lie all the time.
• Even though people lie all the time, we indicate our endorsement
of honesty as a standard of conduct by
– defending honesty in public
– teaching our children to be honest
– expressing our disapproval of lying.

Class Discussion
Is There a Difference Between Ethics and Morality?

Ethics and Morality
• Morality consists of a society’s most general standards.

These standards apply to all people in society regardless
of their professional or institutional roles.
– Moral standards distinguish between right and wrong,
good and bad, virtue and vice, justice and injustice.
– Many writers maintain that moral duties and obligations
override other ones:
• if I have a moral duty not to lie, then I should not lie even if
my employment requires me to lie.

Ethics and Morality Cont.
Moral standards include those rules that most

people learn in childhood, e.g. “don’t lie, cheat,
steal, harm other people, etc.”
Ethics are not general standards of conduct but the

standards of a particular profession, occupation,
institution, or group with-in society.
The word “ethics,” usually serves as a modifier for

another word, e.g. business ethics, medical ethics,
sports ethics, military ethics, Muslim ethics, etc.

WHAT SHALL WE SAY THEN
Are ETHICS LAW?

Ethics and Law
There are several reasons why ethics is not law.

• First, some actions that are illegal may not be unethical.
– Although speeding is illegal, one might have an ethical obligation
to break the speed limit in order to transport someone to a hospital in
an emergency.
• Second, some actions that are unethical may not be illegal.
– Most people would agree that lying is unethical but lying is only
illegal under certain conditions, e.g. lying on an income tax return,
lying when giving sworn testimony, etc.

Ethics and Law Cont.
• Third, laws can be unethical or immoral (Hart 1961).

– The United States had laws permitting slavery in the 1800s but
most people today would say those laws were unethical or
immoral.
• Finally, we use the coercive power of government to enforce
laws. People who break certain laws can be fined, imprisoned,
or executed.
– People who violate ethical or moral standards do not face these
kinds of punishments unless their actions also violate laws.

Ethics and Religion
• Religiously based ethics is that religions provide justifications,

definitions, and interpretations of standards of conduct.
• Religious institutions and theologies can be very useful in

teaching ethics and in motivating ethical conduct.
– Indeed, religions probably play a key role in the moral education
of most of the people in the world.
– Religion can supplement and complement ethics, even though
ethics need not be tied to any particular religion or its teachings.

Hypothetical Case 1: OMITTING DATA
• Akua Yvonne is a graduate student helping Dick Jonas analyze data on

a spiral galaxy (stars and gas clouds concentrated) in order to
determine its velocity, luminosity, and rate of spin.
• The data were produced by an infra-red telescope at a nearby
mountain.
• Jonas intends to publish the results in an astronomical journal and list
her as a co-author.
• In order to have an example of how to analyze the data, she reads a
paper Jonas published several years ago that uses the same statistical
techniques.
• She begins a search for the old data used to write this paper and to her
surprise she finds that the records do not agree with the results the
professor reported in the paper.

Omitting Data Case Cont.
• It appears as if Jonas omitted about 10 percent of the recorded data.

• Akua talks to Jonas about this discrepancy and he explains that he
omitted some of the data because he felt the telescope was not working
correctly when it produced these poor results.
• She presses him further on this issue and he tells her to trust his
judgment.
Questions of Ethical Dilemma
 Should Jonas have included all of the data in his paper?
 If so, how should he have discussed problems with the data?
 Should Akua pursue this matter any further?

Hypothetical Case 2: Data Fabrication
• Victor Johnson and Susan Klein are graduate students analyzing

soil samples for Roberto Martinez, who is conducting a study on
soil acidity for the state of Idaho.
• The study began six months ago and is supposed to be completed
this week. Martinez plans to list Johnson and Klein as co-authors
when he submits the research to a journal.
• Each day Johnson and Klein have collected and analyzed soil
samples from different parts of the state. They are almost near the
end of their study when they realize that they forgot to record the
data for six soil samples taken three weeks ago.

Data Fabrication Cont.
• They remember the approximate locations of the samples, but not

the exact locations. Johnson suggests that they should go ahead and
record some exact locations for these samples since this act will not
have a significant affect on the outcome of the study and they do
not have time to go back to the sites and collect samples again.
• Klein is not sure that they should make up these results.
Questions of Ethical Dilemma
• Should Klein abide by Johnson’s suggestion?
• Should she talk to Martinez about this issue?

WHAT IS ETHICAL
IMPROPRIETY?

WHY SOME SCIENTIST DO NOT TAKE
ETHICAL IMPROPRIETY WITH SERIOUSNESS?
• Because they regard misconduct as rare and insignificant.

• Some scientist invoke the “psychological pathology” theory to
explain misconduct. There is the believe that scientist who
behave unethically must be mentally deranged according to
Broad & Wade (1993).
• Crime does not pay in science.
• Science is viewed as objective hence no significant issue can
arise in science.

Reasons for Ethical Impropriety
• Pressure to publish or perish

• Pressure on governmental funding for research
• Economic incentive in patent and innovative products
• Lack of proper peer review
• Lack of ethical education for scientist***
Now You Know Better

Why Science Students Need Ethical Education
• Complexity of modern science and social institutions

• Evidence from developmental psychology
• Some ethical concepts & principles can be learned by
understanding and practicing an occupation or
profession.

Hypothetical Case
Publishing a correction
 Collin, Wood, and Butamo have written a paper on the effects
of UV radiation on plant mutations. After reading the paper,
Butamo notices that it contains a minor mathematical error.
Butamo mentions this error to Wood, who wrote the section of
the paper that contains the error. Wood tells Butamo that the
error will not affect the paper’s findings and that they should
ignore it.
 Should they submit a correction to the journal?
• What should Butamo do if his colleagues do not want to submit
a correction?

ETHICAL THEORY AND
APPLICATIONS

BRANCHES OF ETHICS
There are four (4) branches in ethics namely:
 Normative Ethics (Prescriptive Ethics)

 Applied Ethics
 Meta-Ethics
 Descriptive Ethics

Normative / Prescriptive Ethics
Normative ethics is the branch of ethics concerned

with establishing the following:
• How things should be or happen

• How to value such things
• Which things are good or bad
• Which actions are right or wrong

Normative / Prescriptive Ethics cont.
Normative ethics attempt to develop a set of rules

governing human conduct, or a set of norms for action.
 Normative ethical theories are split into three (3) main

categories:
 Consequentialism / Teleological Ethics
 Deontology Ethics
 Virtue Ethics

Consequentialism / Teleological
Normative Ethical Theories|
Ethics
• It argues that the morality of an action is contingent on

the actions outcome or results.
• A morally right action is one that produces a good
outcome or consequence.
What questions do consequentialist theories consider:

– What sort of consequences count as good consequences?
– Who is the primary beneficiary of moral action?
– How are the consequences judged and who judges them?

Consequentialist Theories cont.
Some consequentialist theories include ethical egoism,

utilitarianism and hedonism.
 Ethical Egoism: It holds the view that an action is

right if it maximizes good the self.
- Egoism may license actions which are good for individual,
but detrimental to the general welfare.
- Egoism holds that people should do what benefits them.

Consequentialist Theories cont.
 Utilitarianism: This holds that an action is right if it

leads to the most happiness for the greatest number of
people.
 Hedonism: It is the philosophy that pleasure is the most

important pursuit of mankind.
 Individual should strive to maximize their own total
pleasure and minimize pain.

Deontology
Deontology: Is an approach in ethics that focuses on the rightness or

wrongness of actions themselves, as opposed to the rightness or
wrongness of consequences.
- Deontology argues that decisions should be made considering the
factors of one’s duties and other’s rights.
Deontological Theories Include:

 Divine Command Theory: It states that an action is right if God
has decreed that it is right, and an act is obligatory if and only if it
is commanded by God.
 Natural Rights Theory: There is the believe that humans have
absolute, natural right. This eventually developed into human
rights.
Deontological Theories Cont.
 Immanuel Kant’s Categorical Imperative: It argues that to

act in the morally right way, people must act according to duty,
and that it is the motives of the people who carries out the
action that makes them right or wrong, not the consequences of
the action.
 Categorical imperative states that one should only act in such a

way that one could want the maximum of one’s action to become
a universal law, and that one should always treat people as an end
as well as a means to an end.

Virtue Ethics
This focuses on the inherent character of a person rather than on

the nature of consequences of specific actions performed.
 Virtue ethics comes with three main theories.

 Eudaimonism
 Agent-Based Theory
 Ethics of Care

VIRTUE ETHICS CONT.
 Eudaimonism: This is a philosophy originated by Aristotle and

defines right action leading to well being and can be achieved by a
lifetime of practicing the virtue in one’s everyday activities.
Practical wisdom is a key component of this theory.
 Agent-Based Theories: It give an account of virtue based on
common-sense intuitions about which character traits that are
admirable.
 Ethics of Care: This was developed mainly by feminist writers,
with an advocate for how we view morality and virtues, shifting
towards marginalized virtues exemplified by women like taking care
of others, patience, ability to nurture, self sacrifice etc.

APPLIED ETHICS
This is a discipline of philosophy that attempts to apply ethical theory to

real life situations.
 Applied ethics tend to ask the following questions:

i. Is getting an abortion immoral?
ii. Is affirmative action right or wrong?
iii. What are human rights and how do we determine them?
iv. Do animals have rights as well?

META-ETHICS
 This is concerned primarily with the meaning of ethical judgement,

and seek to understand the nature of ethical properties, statements,
attitudes, and judgements and how they may be supported or
defended.
 Meta-Ethical theory unlike a normative theory does not attempt to

evaluate specific choices as being better, worse, good, bad or evil;
rather it defines the meaning and nature of problem being discussed.

DESCRIPTIVE ETHICS
 This is a value free approach to ethics which examines ethics from the
perspective of observations of actual choices made by moral agents in
practice.
 It is the study of peoples belief about morality. It is not designed to
provide guidance to people in making moral decisions.
 It is also referred to as comparative ethics.

TOOLS FOR CRITICAL THINKING
According to Sibtain (2010), when talking about critical thinking and

ethics, few questions arise:
 What do ethics mean to you?
 What are some different beliefs about ethical living? Which ones do
you agree with more? Is it hard to live ethically?
 What role do reason, emotion, and intuition play when making ethical
decisions?
 Have you experienced these, and have you ever felt a conflict between
the three?
 What are some of the tools of critical thinking for ethics? Have you
ever used them?
 According to Heinkes (2009), tools to consider in ethical thinking are:
values, argument, finding facts, language and debate.

TOOLS FOR CRITICAL THINKING CONT.
How to solve an Ethical Dilemma:

 Step 1: Frame a set of questions
 Step 2: Gather information
 Step 3: Explore different options
 Step 4: Evaluate options
 Step 5: Make a decision
 Step 6: Take action

Hypothetical Case
Reviewing a book manuscript

• Jill Westerhoff has been sent a book manuscript to review for
Wadman Publishing. The manuscript is an introduction to
developmental psychology, and she is currently working on a
textbook on the same topic. If this rival textbook is published and is
well received, then her own textbook may not receive adequate
recognition.
 Does she have a conflict of interest?
 If she does, what should she do?

STANDARDS OF ETHICAL CONDUCT
IN SCIENCE

FOUNDATIONS OF ETHICAL STANDARDS
Ethical standards in science have two conceptual foundations:

 Morality
 Science
• Ethical conduct in science should not violate commonly accepted moral
standards.
• It should promote the advancement of scientific goals. For example,
fabricating data is unethical in science because it is a form of lying,
which is morally wrong.

ETHICAL PRINCIPLES
Scientist must uphold the following ethical principles:

• Honesty
• Carefulness
• Openness
• Social Responsibility
• Legality
• Mutual Respect

ETHICAL PRINCIPLES – CONT.
• Efficiency
• Respect for Intellectual Property
• Objectivity
• Integrity
• Responsible publication
• Non-discrimination
• Competence
• Animal Care

CODE OF ETHICS OF ENGINEERS
 (Adopted from the National Society of Professional Engineers)
• PREAMBLE: Engineering is an important profession and as a member,

you are expected to exhibit the highest standards of honesty and integrity.
• Engineers must perform under a standard of professional behavior that
requires adherence to the highest principles of ethical conduct.

Fundamental Canons
Engineers, in the fulfilment of their professional duties, shall:

• Hold paramount the safety, health, and welfare of the public.
• Perform services only in the areas of their competence.
• Issue public statements only in an objective and truthful manner.
• Act for each employer or client as faithful agents or trustee.
• Avoid deceptive acts.
• Conduct yourself honorably, responsibly, and lawfully so as to enhance
the honor, reputation, and usefulness of the profession.

20 RULES OF PRACTICE

Rules of Practice
Engineers shall hold paramount the safety, health, and welfare of the public:
• If engineers' judgment is overruled under circumstances that endanger
life or property, they shall notify their employer or client and such other
authority as may be appropriate.
• Engineers shall approve only those engineering documents that are in
conformity with applicable standards.
• Engineers shall not reveal facts, data, or information without the prior
consent of the client or employer except as authorized or required by law
or this Code.
• Engineers shall not permit the use of their name or associate in business
ventures with any person or firm that they believe is engaged in
fraudulent or dishonest enterprise.

Rules of Practice – cont.
• Engineers shall not aid or abet the unlawful practice of engineering by a
person or firm.
• Engineers having knowledge of any alleged violation of this Code shall
report thereon to appropriate professional bodies and, when relevant, also
to public authorities, and cooperate with the proper authorities in
furnishing such information or assistance as may be required.
• Engineers shall perform services only in the areas of their competence
and shall undertake assignments only when qualified by education or
experience in the specific technical fields involved:
• Engineers shall not affix their signatures to any plans or documents
dealing with subject matter in which they lack competence, nor to any
plan or document not prepared under their direction and control.

• Engineers may accept assignments and assume responsibility for
coordination of an entire project and sign and seal the engineering
documents for the entire project, provided that each technical segment is
signed and sealed only by the qualified engineers who prepared the
segment.
• Engineers shall issue public statements only in an objective and truthful
manner.
• Engineers shall be objective and truthful in professional reports,
statements, or testimony. They shall include all relevant and pertinent
information in such reports, statements, or testimony, which should bear
the date indicating when it was current.
• Engineers may express publicly technical opinions that are founded upon
knowledge of the facts and competence in the subject matter.

• Engineers shall issue no statements, criticisms, or arguments on technical

matters that are inspired or paid for by interested parties, unless they have
prefaced their comments by explicitly identifying the interested parties.
• Engineers shall act for each employer or client as faithful agents or
trustees. Engineers shall disclose all known or potential conflicts of
interest that could influence or appear to influence their judgment or the
quality of their services.
• Engineers shall not accept compensation, financial or otherwise, from
more than one party for services on the same project, or for services
pertaining to the same project, unless the circumstances are fully disclosed
and agreed to by all interested parties.

• Engineers shall not solicit or accept financial or other valuable
consideration, directly or indirectly, from outside agents in connection
with the work for which they are responsible.
• Engineers in public service as members, advisors, or employees of a
governmental or quasi-governmental body or department shall not
participate in decisions with respect to services solicited or provided by
them or their organizations in private or public engineering practice.
• Engineers shall not solicit or accept a contract from a governmental body
on which a principal or officer of their organization serves as a member.
Engineers shall avoid deceptive acts.

• Engineers shall not falsify their qualifications or permit misrepresentation

of their or their associates' qualifications. They shall not misrepresent or
exaggerate their responsibility in or for the subject matter of prior
assignments. Brochures or other presentations incident to the solicitation
of employment shall not misrepresent pertinent facts concerning
employers, employees, associates, joint ventures, or past
accomplishments.
• They shall not offer any gift or other valuable consideration in order to
secure work. They shall not pay a commission, percentage, or brokerage
fee in order to secure work, except to a bona fide employee or bona fide
established commercial or marketing agencies retained by them.

PROFESSIONAL OBLIGATIONS

Professional Obligations
Engineers shall be guided in all their relations by the highest

standards of honesty and integrity.
i. Engineers shall acknowledge their errors and shall not distort or
alter the facts.
ii. Engineers shall advise their clients or employers when they
believe a project will not be successful.
iii. Engineers shall not accept outside employment to the detriment
of their regular work or interest. Before accepting any outside
engineering employment, they will notify their employers.
iv. Engineers shall not attempt to attract an engineer from another
employer by false or misleading pretenses.

v. Engineers shall not promote their own interest at the expense of

the dignity and integrity of the profession. Engineers shall at all
times strive to serve the public interest.
vi. Engineers are encouraged to participate in civic affairs; career
guidance for youths; and work for the advancement of the
safety, health, and well-being of their community.
vii. Engineers are encouraged to participate in civic affairs; career
guidance for youths; and work for the advancement of the
safety, health, and well-being of their community.

viii. Engineers shall avoid all conduct or practice that deceives the
public. Engineers shall avoid the use of statements containing a
material misrepresentation of fact or omitting a material fact.
ix. Engineers are encouraged to participate in civic affairs; career
guidance for youths; and work for the advancement of the safety,
health, and well-being of their community.
x. Engineers shall not, without the consent of all interested parties,
promote or arrange for new employment or practice in
connection with a specific project for which the engineer has
gained particular and specialized knowledge

xi. Engineers shall not, without the consent of all interested parties,
promote or arrange for new employment or practice in connection with
a specific project for which the engineer has gained particular and
specialized knowledge
xii. Engineers shall not be influenced in their professional duties by
conflicting interests. Engineers shall not accept financial or other
considerations, including free engineering designs, from material or
equipment suppliers for specifying their product.
xiii. Engineers shall not request, propose, or accept a commission on a
contingent basis under circumstances in which their judgment may be
compromised.

xiv. Engineers in private practice shall not review the work of

another engineer for the same client, except with the knowledge
of such engineer, or unless the connection of such engineer with
the work has been terminated.
xv. Engineers shall conform with state registration laws in the
practice of engineering.
xvi. Engineers shall not be influenced in their professional duties by
conflicting interests. Engineers shall not accept financial or other
considerations, including free engineering designs, from material
or equipment suppliers for specifying their product.

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ETHICS IN SCIENCE

UNIVERSITY OF MINES AND

understanding of ethics and ethical dilemmas confronting scientist (engineers &

researchers) in their field of practice.

The specific objectives of this lecture is to provide leaners with

Ethics in Science Apr 18, 2024 Slide 2

At the end of the lecture, learners will have the ability to

 Science and ethics: An Overview

1. Resnik, D.B., 2005. The ethics of science: An introduction.

Ethics in Science Apr 18, 2024 Slide 5

Ethics in Science Apr 18, 2024 Slide 6

• Science has a special role with respect to ethics.

• Ethics are standards of conduct (or social norms) that prescribe

Ethics in Science Apr 18, 2024 Slide 8

Is There a Difference Between Ethics and Morality?

Ethics in Science Apr 18, 2024 Slide 9

• Morality consists of a society’s most general standards.

Ethics in Science Apr 18, 2024 Slide 10

Moral standards include those rules that most

Ethics are not general standards of conduct but the

The word “ethics,” usually serves as a modifier for

Ethics in Science Apr 18, 2024 Slide 11

Are ETHICS LAW?

Ethics in Science Apr 18, 2024 Slide 12

There are several reasons why ethics is not law.

Ethics in Science Apr 18, 2024 Slide 13

• Third, laws can be unethical or immoral (Hart 1961).

Ethics in Science Apr 18, 2024 Slide 14

• Religiously based ethics is that religions provide justifications,

• Religious institutions and theologies can be very useful in

Ethics in Science Apr 18, 2024 Slide 15

• Akua Yvonne is a graduate student helping Dick Jonas analyze data on

Ethics in Science Apr 18, 2024 Slide 16

• It appears as if Jonas omitted about 10 percent of the recorded data.

Ethics in Science Apr 18, 2024 Slide 17

• Victor Johnson and Susan Klein are graduate students analyzing

Ethics in Science Apr 18, 2024 Slide 18

• They remember the approximate locations of the samples, but not

Ethics in Science Apr 18, 2024 Slide 19

Ethics in Science Apr 18, 2024 Slide 20

• Because they regard misconduct as rare and insignificant.

Ethics in Science Apr 18, 2024 Slide 21

• Pressure to publish or perish

Ethics in Science Apr 18, 2024 Slide 22

• Complexity of modern science and social institutions

Ethics in Science Apr 18, 2024 Slide 24

Ethics in Science Apr 18, 2024 Slide 25

Ethics in Science Apr 18, 2024 Slide 26

There are four (4) branches in ethics namely:

 Normative Ethics (Prescriptive Ethics)

Ethics in Science Apr 18, 2024 Slide 27

Normative ethics is the branch of ethics concerned

• How things should be or happen

Ethics in Science Apr 18, 2024 Slide 28

Normative ethics attempt to develop a set of rules

 Normative ethical theories are split into three (3) main

Ethics in Science Apr 18, 2024 Slide 29

• It argues that the morality of an action is contingent on