HAJI ME MASHO

CELL CYCLE
• What is a cell cycle ?
• The process a cell goes through each time it divides. The cell cycle consists of a
series of steps during which the chromosomes and other cell material double to
make two copies. The cell then divides into two daughter cells, each receiving
one copy of the doubled material. A cell spends most of its time in what is called
interphase..
• Cell cycle is the name we give the process through which cells replicate and
make two new cells. Cell cycle has different stages called G1, S, G2, and M. G1 is
the stage where the cell is preparing to divide. To do this, it then moves into the S
phase where the cell copies all the DNA. So, S stands for DNA synthesis. After the
DNA is copied and there's a complete extra set of all the genetic material, the cell
moves into the G2 stage, where it organizes and condenses the genetic material,
or starts to condense the genetic material, and prepares to divide. The next
stage is M. M stands for mitosis. This is where the cell actually partitions the two
copies of the genetic material into the two daughter cells. After M phase
completes, cell division occurs and two cells are left, and the cell cycle can begin
again.
1. Honest
2. Responsible
3. Committed
4. Down to earth
5. Helpful
6. Kind
7. Generous
8. Non Prejudice
9. Confident
10. Don’t lie
11. No nepotism
12. No injustice
13. No gender discrimination
14. No discrimination between rich and poor
15. No discrimination between white and black
16. No discrimination on the basis of cast
17. No discrimination between races
18. Confident
• CELL NUCLEUS
• In biology, the structure in a cell that contains the chromosomes.
The nucleus has a membrane around it, and is where RNA is made
from the DNA in the chromosomes.
• Nucleus Definition
• In biology, the term nucleus usually refers to the cell nucleus, which is defined as
the organelle inside the cell containing the chromosomes.
• Not all cells though have a nucleus. When a cell lacks a nucleus the cell is described
as anucleated. Apart from this definition, the nucleus is also used in other biological
fields. For instance, in botany, the nucleus may also refer to the central kernel of a
nut or seed or the center of a starch granule. In neuroanatomy, a nucleus is a group
of cell bodies of nerve cells in the brain or spinal cord.
• In other scientific fields, the term nucleus may refer to the core or the central part
around which other parts are grouped or gathered. For instance, in Physics, a nucleus
refers to the positively charged center of an atom that usually contains protons and
neutrons. In Chemistry, a nucleus is a fundamental arrangement of atoms that occur
in compounds through the substitution of atoms without a change in structure.
• In Astronomy, a nucleus is the center of the head of a comet or the central or
brightest part of a nebula or galaxy. In Meteorology, a nucleus is a particle on which
water vapor molecules accumulate in free air to form water drops or ice crystals.
Mature red blood corpuscles (RBCs) are the blood cells without a nucleus, found
within all mammals including human beings. The red blood cells are also called
erythrocytes.
• Nucleus vs. Nucleoid
• The nucleus is absent in prokaryotes and the lack of this organelle is used as a
basis to distinguish whether a cell is a prokaryote or a eukaryote. Only
eukaryotes have a nucleus; prokaryotes lack a nucleus. However, prokaryotes
have a region in their cell where the genetic material is located. This region is
called a nucleoid. It is nucleus-like and not bound by a nuclear envelope that
separates the genetic material from the cytoplasm.
• Nucleus vs. Nucleolus
• The nucleus should not be confused with another cytoplasmic structure, the
nucleolus. Both of them are present in eukaryotic cells. However, they differ in
structure and function. The nucleus is a double-membraned organelle whereas a
nucleolus is a round granular structure and not membrane-bound. Nevertheless,
the nucleolus is found inside the nucleus. Thus, the nucleolus is one of the
nuclear components and is sometimes classified as one of the nuclear bodies.
• The nucleolus, in turn, is composed of proteins, DNA, and RNA.
While the nucleus is largely involved in gene regulatory functions,
the nucleolus functions primarily for the creation of ribosomes
essential for protein synthesis.
•.
• Nuclear DNA
• The nuclear DNA comprises a large fraction of the cell’s genome (the small
fraction comes from the extranuclear DNA in the mitochondria and/or
chloroplasts). The DNA outside the nucleus is called extranuclear DNA. This
extranuclear DNA, such as cpDNA in chloroplasts and mtDNA in mitochondria,
occurs in multiple copies since there are several chloroplasts and mitochondria
while there is usually just one nucleus inside a cell. A cell would, therefore,
contain several copies of mtDNA and cpDNA, often in thousands. Nuclear DNAs
are compacted into chromatin structures through histones whereas mtDNA and
cpDNA are not.
• Nuclear bodies
• A nuclear body is defined as a non-membraned mostly proteinaceous structure in
the nucleus. As already mentioned above, the nucleolus is regarded as one of the
nuclear bodies and is most prominent. It is characterized by its round granular
appearance. Its function is largely for the synthesis of ribosomes, which in turn
are one of the key players in protein synthesis.
• Nuclear matrix
• The nuclear matrix is analogous to the cytoskeleton in the cytoplasm of the cell. It
is a fibrillar network that provides structural support to the size and shape of the
nucleus. The nuclear matrix is more dynamic though compared with the
cytoskeleton. It includes the nuclear lamina (The nuclear lamina is a structure
near the inner nuclear membrane and the peripheral chromatin) The latter refers
to the dense fibrous network juxtaposing the nuclear envelope.
• Nucleoplasm
• The nucleoplasm refers to the protoplasm of the nucleus just as the cytoplasm in
the rest of the cell. The nucleoplasm is comprised of various materials (e.g.
chromosomes, nuclear bodies, and nuclear matrix) contained by the nuclear
envelope. The fluid component of the nucleoplasm is called a nucleosol (just as
the cytosol is to the cytoplasm).
• Cytoplasm is the part between cell membrane and nuclear membrane. Whereas
protoplasm is Cytoplasm+ Nucleus.
• Nuclear envelope
• The nuclear envelope (also called a nuclear membrane) is the biological
membrane that surrounds the nucleus. Similar to a cell membrane, the nuclear
membrane is a bilipid layer. Thus, the nuclear membrane function is similar to a
cell membrane as well in terms of regulating the entry and exit of materials.
• The nuclear envelope has nuclear pores to control the movement of molecules
between the nucleoplasm and the cytoplasm. It is impermeable to large
molecules. Thus, it separates the contents of the nucleus from the cellular
cytoplasm and allows the entry of selected molecules. The nuclear transport of
large molecules (e.g. proteins and RNAs) occurs via an active transport system
carrier proteins while the passage of small molecules and ions occurs passively
via the nuclear pores.
• The nucleus may be described as bi-lobed, tri-lobed, or multi-lobed depending
on the number of lobes. The white blood cell is an example of a cell with a lobed
nucleus.
• Function
• The nucleus is called the control center of the cell. This is because it is responsible
for maintaining the integrity of DNA. A large fraction of the genome comes from
nuclear DNA. Thus, the nucleus controls much of the cell’s activities such as
metabolism, growth, and reproduction. It does so by regulating gene expression.
It also mediates the replication of DNA during the S phase of the cell cycle.
• DSC / PHD

• In 16S rRNA Gene of Rubrobacter radiotolerans (Authority)

• Not in all the genes of Rubrobacter radiotolerans
• Not about whole bacteria
• Not about whole Microbiology
• Not bout whole Biology
• Not about whole Science