Formation of Modern Turkey

based on Turkey: A Modern History by Eric J. Zürcher

“Part I: Western Influences and Early Attempts at

Modernization”
 4. The Later Years of Sultan Mahmut II: The Start of the Reforms

-International and internal conditions of the Empire at

Mahmut II’s time
Outside the Empire
-Ottoman-Russian War-1806-12 & 1828-29
-Ottoman-Iranian-1818-1821-23
-French invasion of Algeria, 1830

Inside the Empire

-The Serbian rebellion, 1813 and 1830
-The Second Wahhabi Revolt, 1813
-Tepedenli Ali Pasha revolt, 1822
-Kavalali Mehmet Ali Pasha, 1831-1833
-The Greek Rebellion, 1821-30
-Damascene Uprising, 1831
 4. The Later Years of Sultan Mahmut II: The
Start of the Reforms
Subtopics in Zucher’s Book

-The Egyptian Crisis

-The “Eastern Question
-The Sultan in control: The Start of the Reform
Movements
-Financial problems
-Education
-The handicaps of the reformers
-Economic trends in the later years of Sultan Mahmut
II
 4. The Later Years of Sultan Mahmut II: The Start of the Reforms

-The Egyptian Crisis

Ambitions of Mehmet Ali

-Conquered Syria 1831, Acre fell in May 1832
-Porte declared him a rebel, marched against Ottomans,
reached at Konya 1832, then marched to Istanbul (Kayseri).
-Ottoman asks foreign support against Egypt.
-Russia now got involved, marched to Istanbul.
-Treaty of Hunkar Iskelesi 1833 …..loss of Syria to Egypt.
-1839, Mahmut II attacks Syria, defeated at Nizip.
 4. The Later Years of Sultan Mahmut II: The Start of the Reforms
World scene and The “Eastern Question”

-Nationalism against Imperialism:

-Tension between nationalisms within Ottoman State and
Imperialism of the European powers
(not wanting “destruction” of OE, while being dissolved, not
wanting to upset balance of power in Europe….)

Ottoman Experience of the Time

-The increasing incorporation of Ottoman economy into the
economy of the “Capitalist World System”
-Rise of new traders in the Empire from amongst the
Ottoman Christian communities; and the rise of new
industrialist and bankers) (see Zurcher page: 46-49)
 4. The Later Years of Sultan Mahmut II: The Start of the Reforms

Ottoman Experience of this Time II (continued)

At the societal level there were:
-Polarization between predominantly Muslim
military/bureaucratic elite and emergence of Christian
bourgeoisie
Government of Mahmut II’s Response
to the Changes to strengthen the CENTRAL STATE
through:
1-Military reforms (continuation of “modern”ization ),
2-Administrative reforms
3-Fiscal reforms
4-Educational reforms
5-Legal reforms
 4. The Later Years of Sultan Mahmut II: The Start of the Reforms
-The Sultan in control: The Start of the Reform Movements -1

Mahmut II’s To do List:

Needed a strong central state with efficient and powerful army
Need Money……..to get it
Need efficient taxation……..to get it
Need efficient administration (bureaucracy)…..central and provincial…
Need effective communication…..new trained people to do the job…
Need new educational system to produce new-style, “rational” civil
servants to do the work state needed

How does Mahmut II Sets the Stage to all above:

Mahmut II uprooted, tamed, modified, changes the established
institutions…Encouraged small specialized military units……(artillery,
wagoners, sappers), allies himself with loyal personals….
 4. The Later Years of Sultan Mahmut II: The Start of the Reforms
Sultan is Ready for Radical Changes

1-Military Reforms-I

(After inefficiency of Janissaries in suppressing Greek

Revolts)

-Military reforms, New system of army established, named

Muallem Asakiri Mansure-i Muhammadiyye (Trained
victorious soldiers of Muhammed)

-Certain elements of janissaries are incorporated into new

military system (150 men from each janissary battalion
required to join…)
 4. The Later Years of Sultan Mahmut II: The Start of the Reforms
1-Military Reforms-II

-VAKA-I HAYIRYE (1826)

(beneficial event): Abolishment of Janissaries 1826
-SERASKER (commander-in-chief) of Mansure troops
(Husrev Pasha was the first commander in chief)
-New office of the chief of military services
-Later on office of Serasker turned into Minister of War
-New way of dressing (fes, and feshane ) and equipping the
army
-Professional Training of the new army:
-Change in human resources: To train the new army
professionally, this time the trainers are recruited from
Prussia. (Notice the change of external sources due to trust
issue, see page ) (see page 41, Zurcher)
 4. The Later Years of Sultan Mahmut II: The Start of the Reforms
1-Military Reforms-III

-Vaka-i Hayirye (Continued)

Spiritual/moral training of military personnel:

-Bektashi sufi order officially closed down for its long
established ties to Janissaries
-Nakshibendi order was favored instead of Bektashies

-Redif system 1834.

Military Reserve is being created, called Redif in 1834
 4. The Later Years of Sultan Mahmut II: The Start of the Reforms
2-Administrative Reforms-I
BUREAUCRACY: Towards new bureaucratic system
Three major changes:
1-Job security in state (civil) service
-Towards bureaucratic Job security in the civil service
-Abolished confiscation (1826),
-Abolished re-appointment of higher functionaries (1834),
-Abolished scribal fees (bahshish), placed regular salaries.
2-New system of governing
-Division of Labor at the top of the State:
Change in Sublime Porte, grand vizier no more an alter ego of
sultan, different task for grand vizier’s subordinates. i.e.
Change of: Kahya to ministry of interior,
Reisulkuttab (chief scribe)to minister of foreign
affairs; and... new treasury and justice department
 4. The Later Years of Sultan Mahmut II: The Start of the Reforms
2-Administrative Reforms-II
(Bureaucracy continued)

3-Advisory councils to administrative bodies (a kind of -

know-how) specifically for newly required legal
changes/reforms

The Sultan had:

-Advisory council within The Palace
-Advisory council in the Porte

-Majlisi Wala-i Ahkami Adliye (Supreme Council for

Judicial Regulations), the most important of all Advisory
Councils.
 4. The Later Years of Sultan Mahmut II: The Start of the Reforms
2-Administrative Reforms-III
Provinces:
-Center’s direct tax collectors in the provinces
-Center’s direct military commanders in the provinces
-Implemented only in Bursa and Gallipoli
-Control of the ayans

Communication with provinces: Postal system, road

construction,

Public opinion formation: Takvim-i Vakayi (Moniteur

Ottoman) (1831),
 4. The Later Years of Sultan Mahmut II: The Start of the Reforms

3-Fiscal-Financial reforms-I
New Tax Sources:
Mansure Hazinesi (special treasury for army)…taxes from
-tax farms
-religious foundations
-confiscated properties
-rusumati jihadiye

-Mansure treasury developed into Ministry of Finance

-Debasement (nearly 500 per cent decrease)
-No state monopolies, no mercantilist policies

Census to be held 1828-29…later census shows about 23 to 35

million population
 4. The Later Years of Sultan Mahmut II: The Start of the Reforms
4-Reforms in Education-I

Ulema and Waqf (Charity endowments)-I

-Waqf as source of Ulama’s economic power base
(By 19th century, waqf institutions were controlling 4/5 of the
Empire’s arable lands, thus generating zero tax to the state
treasury)
-Centralized tax collection, centralized salary (wage
collection), centralized charity services etc…created “big
state,”… waqfs can no longer stay the same as they were.

-Mahmut II carried out, so far, the most comprehensive waqf

centralization in the Empire
-Waqf libraries were increased in Istanbul.
 4. The Later Years of Sultan Mahmut II: The Start of the Reforms
4-Reforms in Education-II
-Mahmut II carried out, so far, the most comprehensive waqf
centralization in the Empire

-In 1826, established Evkaf-i Humayun Nezareti (The Ministry

of Imperial Religious Foundations)…thus placed all the
waqfs under one administration.

-Similar trends (“state”tization of charitable foundations) can

be seen started from late 16th century to around the 19th
ecntury….
 4. The Later Years of Sultan Mahmut II: The Start of the Reforms
4-Reforms in Education-III

-Change in ulema establishment,

-The endowments (vakfs) are put under new bureaucratic order
of state control

-Educated elite (ulema) is put under hierarchical order of

Shaikulislam
4-Reforms in Education-III
New Schools (Modernization as well as Westernization)

-Tiphane-i Amire: An Army medical school, 1827.

-“Modern” medicine was thought, with biology and
physics taught with modernist mentality
-Its mission was to train physicians for the new
Mansure army system

-School paved the way for entry of rationalist &

positivist mentality in Ottoman Land
-Foreign instructors played significant role.
-Scholl produced “modern” cadre for Ottomans and
other nations after dissolving of the Empire
New Schools (Modernization as well as Westernization)
-Mizikayi Humayun-School of Military music (1831)
-Mekteb-i Harbiye-Military academy (1834 )

-Channels of Modern/Western Thought in Emp.

-Foreign instructors
-Students sent to Europe (France)
-Office of Reisulkuttab (turn into Foreign Office)
-Translation Office worked under foreign office
(Tercume Odasi/Dragomans/Phanariote Greek
families...Translation office also worked as training
place for young “westernized” bureaucrats)
-New embassies in the European capitals
 4. The Later Years of Sultan Mahmut II: The Start of the Reforms

-The handicaps to Mahmut II’s reforms -1

1-Human Resource: ”[T]he lack of adequately

trained and trustworthy personnel” (in military and
bureaucratic cadre)

2-Top down reforms: ”[T]he reforms were the result

of of deliberate political choice at the top.” not a
product of “popular pressure”…

3-Patrimonial (patron-client) system: Patrimonialist

Ottoman system resisted the change, (bureaucrats still
worked like partisans?).
 4. The Later Years of Sultan Mahmut II: The Start of the Reforms

-The handicaps to Mahmut II’s reforms -2

4-Dualism/side-by-side: New institutions, new

reforms, new laws were introduced and coexisted
side-by-side with old ones (except in case of vakayi
khayriyya 1826).

5-Economy & Finance: Expensive reforms, “big

government” but not enough financial sources.
 -Worldwide Economic Trends
4. The Later Years of Sultan Mahmut II: The Start of the Reforms

Free Trade Agreements

-Great Britain as big trading nation and industrial power
(Protective economic policies of Europe and America pushed
Britain for markets in Asia and South America)

-British had favorable capitulations with OE

-Mustafa Resit Pasha offered Britain free trade agreement
-Treaty of Balta Limani (1738), opened up the Ottoman
Market completely to British trade.

-Ottoman tax policies on foreign products was not-favorable

to Ottoman merchants and traders (3%, then 8%, then 5% on
imports 12% on exports, Ottomans paid extra internal duties
at the rate of 8%
 -Worldwide Economic Trends
Winners and looser with new economic changes
-France was not happy with treaty of Balta Limani
-Small scale agri-producer vs. large scale
-Intermediaries, mainly Greek and Armenians, between small
farmers and European industry were the main profit makers
-Honorary foreigner status under Berat system. (p.48)
-Intermediaries had stronger positions than Muslim subjects
of the Emp.
-Empire did have some small scale production of clothing,
equipment and armaments (mills were established by the
state, example is fez production, Feshane grew further…
suppliers for military, … not for commercial market….)
-1840 steam engines were introduced in the empire