Carbon in the Biosphere

Shells and skeletons of sea animals that settle to the ocean floor are converted into
limestone (CaCO3) rocks. This inorganic carbon reservoir of the Earth’s crust is the
largest of the carbon reservoirs in the Earth system.

Carbon in the Oceans

The carbon in the oceanic reservoir exists in three forms:
(1) dissolved CO2 or H2CO3, also known as carbonic acid,
(2) Carbonate (CO32-) ions paired with Ca2+ and Mg2+ and other metallic cations,
and
(3) bicarbonate ions (HCO3-).

The third form is by far the largest of the oceanic carbon reservoirs

Ref: Wallace and Hobbs

Carbon in the Oceans
Sunlight penetrating the surface ocean causes
photosynthesis by microscopic plants. As they
die, their nutrient-bearing organic tissue
descends to the seafloor. Oxidation of this
tissue at depth returns nutrients and inorganic
carbon to the surface ocean in regions of
upwelling.

Life in the oceans depends on a different

combination of the same factors as on
land. Obviously, water is abundantly
available in the oceans, and CO2 is
plentiful in surface waters that exchange
CO2 with the atmosphere. Photosynthesis in the
ocean
Ref: Wallace and Hobbs
• The greatest amount of photosynthesis
in the surface ocean occurs along
shallow continental margins and in
coastal, equatorial, and high-latitude
regions where nutrients upwell from
below.

• The Southern Ocean around Antarctica

is another productive region. Deep
water from the Atlantic flows toward
the surface in this area, bringing
nutrients up from below. Strong winds
mix these nutrients into the surface
layers, producing the rich biomass of
the Southern Ocean.
Ref: Wallace and Hobbs
Carbon in the Earth’s Crust
The organic and inorganic carbon reservoirs in the Earth’s crust are both very large,
the exchange rates in and out of them (apart from the burning of fossil fuels) are
very slow, and residence times are on the order of many millions of years.

The even larger inorganic carbon reservoir, consisting mostly of calcium carbonate
(CaCO3), is almost exclusively a product of the marine biosphere

Schematic of the long-term

inorganic carbon cycle, also
referred to as the carbonate–
silicate cycle. The symbol S
denotes sedimentation, M
denotes metamorphosis, and
W denotes weathering.

Ref: Wallace and Hobbs

Rates of carbon exchange between biosphere and atmosphere and between ocean and
atmosphere

The rates of carbon exchange between the biosphere and atmosphere and between
ocean and atmosphere, and it also shows emissions from fossil fuel combustion and
forest burning (Gt y−1). The figure also shows the carbon reservoirs residing in biota
and soil litter on land (2000 Gt), dissolved in the ocean (40,000 Gt), in fossil fuels
(5000–10,000 Gt), and in the atmosphere (750 Gt) Ref: Energy and Env.
The respiration and decomposition of land organisms emit about 60 Gt y −1 of carbon
into the atmosphere, while photosynthesis absorbs about 62 Gt y−1. Thus, there is a
small net absorption of CO2 from the atmosphere by land-based biota. The oceans
and other surface waters absorb 92 Gt y−1 of carbon by dissolution of CO2 and by
photosynthesis of phytoplankton. The oceans return into the atmosphere about 90 Gt
y−1 by respiration and outgassing. Thus, the oceans are also net absorbers of CO2.

Currently, about 6.8 Gt y−1 of carbon (25 Gt y−1 CO2) are emitted into the atmosphere
by fossil fuel combustion. Another 1.5±1 Gt y−1 are emitted due to deforestation and
land use changes. The atmospheric carbon content is increasing by about 3 Gt y −1.

Carbon and carbon dioxide will be used interchangeably in subsequent discussions. To convert from carbon to CO2,
multiply by 44/12 = 3.67. Ref: Energy and Env.
 CONTROLLING CO2 EMISSIONS
Emission reductions of CO2 can be accomplished by a combination of several of the
following approaches:

 End-use efficiency improvements and conservation

 Supply side efficiency improvements
 Capture and sequestration of CO2 in subterranean reservoirs or in
the deep ocean
 Utilization of CO2 for enhanced oil and natural gas recovery and
for enhanced biomass
 production (photosynthesis)
 Shift to nonfossil energy sources.

Ref: Energy and Env.

End-Use Efficiency Improvements and Conservation

• In the residential–commercial sector, they range from lowering the thermostat in the
winter (less heating), raising it in the summer (less air conditioning), better
insulation, less hot water use, replacement of incandescent with fluorescent lighting,
replacement of electric clothes dryers with gas dryers, and so on.

• In the industrial sector the largest savings could come from reductions in direct use
of fossil fuels (e.g., coal for process heat or smelting), process modification, energy-
efficient motors, better heat exchangers, and so on.

• In transportation Sector: Because it is unrealistic to expect that the number of

transportation vehicles, or the distances covered, will diminish, the only chances for
reducing carbon emissions in the transportation sector lie in efficiency
improvements.

Ref: Energy and Env.

Supply-Side Efficiency Improvements
• Shift from coal to natural gas. Per unit of energy, gas emits roughly half as much
carbon as coal.

• Replacement of single-cycle gas-fired steam power plants with combined cycle gas
turbine plants (CCGT). Because single-cycle power plant thermal efficiencies are in
the range 35–40%, whereas the combined cycle plants can achieve 50–55%, the
carbon emission savings are in the range of 10–20%.

• Replacement of single-cycle coal-fired power plants with gas-fired CCGT. The

carbon emission savings are in the range 60–70%(50%on account of shift from coal
to gas, and 10–20% on account of higher efficiency).

• Replacement of single-cycle coal-fired power plants with coal-derived synthetic gas-

fired combined cycle gas turbine plants. The efficiency of such plants is 40–45%
based on the coal input energy.
Ref: Energy and Env.
CO2 Capture

The following technologies for CO2 capture from power plants are
being developed:

• Air separation–CO2 recycling

• Solvent absorption
• Membrane gas separation

Ref: Energy and Env.