“Physical Properties of materials”

Conductors and Insulators

Presented by the 3rd year metallurgy undergraduates:

Mahmoud Mohammad Hamed
Mostafa Farghaly AlSayed
Abdelrahman Rabea Soufey
Supervised by:
Dr. Rania ElShorbagy
 Contents
• Introduction and classification of
materials depending on conductivity
• What are Conductors?
• Band Theory
• Effect of many variables on
Conductivity
 Introduction
We differentiate the materials around us based on
their physical properties, such as malleability,
phase, texture, color, polarity, solubility,.....etc.
But as we know, another very important
classification of materials is done on the basis of
their conductivity of electric charge: conductors
and insulators.
 Introduction
If we perform a simple experiment with a battery
and a small LED bulb, we will notice that when
the electric circuit between the battery and the
bulb is completed by plastic or cotton, the bulb
doesn’t glow. But if we perform the same
experiment with the help of a metallic wire such
as copper, the bulb starts to glow.
 Introduction
This indicates that some elements enable the
transfer of charge from the battery to the bulbs,
while others don’t.
The basis of the classification of such elements is
their electrical conductivity.
 Introduction
The questions must be asked here:
• How exactly can some materials conduct
electricity?
• What are the main differences between
conductors and insulators?
• How is conductivity affected by various
parameters?
 What are the conductors?
Conductors are defined as the materials or substances
that allow electricity to flow through them. Also,
conductors allow heat to be transmitted through them.
Examples of conductors are:
Metals, the human body, Earth and animals.
The human body is a strong conductor. It, therefore,
offers a resistance-free route from a current-carrying
wire through the body for the current to flow.
 What are the conductors?

Conductors have free electrons on

their surface that allow the easy
passage of current.
This is the reason why electricity
transmits freely through the
conductors.
 What are the conductors?

Generally, they are substances which have

the property to pass different types of
energy. In the following, the conductivity of
electricity is the value of interest
 What are the conductors?
Conductivity in metals:
The conductivity of metals is based on
the free electrons (so-called Fermi gas)
due to the metal bonding. Already with
low energy electrons become sufficiently
detached from the atoms and a
conductivity is achieved.
 What are the conductors?
Metallic bonding: fixed ions and free valence electrons (Fermi
gas)
The conductivity depends on the temperature. If the
temperature rises, the metal atoms swing ever stronger, so
that the electrons are constrained in their movements. So,
the resistance increases. The best conductors, gold and
silver, are used relatively rare because of the high costs
(gold e.g. for the contacting of the finished chips). The
alternatives in the semiconductor technology for the wiring
of the individual components of microchips are aluminum
 What are the conductors?
In a conductor there are no band gaps between the valence
and conduction bands. In some metals the conduction and
valence bands partially overlap.
▶ This means that electrons can move freely between the
valence band and the conduction band.
The conduction band is only partially filled.
▶ This means there are spaces for electrons to move
into.When electrons for the valence band move into the
conduction band they are free to move. This allows
conduction.
 Band theory
Metal band theory, also known as zone theory of
solids or band theory of solids, form its base from
the relationship between the valence and
conduction bands. The meaning of valence band is
about valence shell orbitals that contain electrons,
whereas the conduction band is made up of
orbitals that electrons abandon in the valence shell
or higher empty shell.
 Band theory
As a result, the orbitals of the conduction band
are empty. So, this theory clearly and specifically
describes insulators, semiconductors, and
conductors.
 Band theory
The difference in energy between them is
negligible and the levels in solids structure
uninterrupted clusters of energy as opposed to the
discrete energy levels of particles in separation.
However, some energy intervals lack orbitals,
resulting in band gaps, which becomes true in the
concept of insulators and semiconductors.
 Properties of electrical conductor
1. A conductor always allows the free movement of
electrons or ions.
2. The electric field inside a conductor must be zero to
permit the electrons or ions to move through the conductor.
3. Charge density inside a conductor is zero i.e. the positive
and negative charges cancel inside a conductor.
4. As no charge inside the conductor, only free charges can
exist only on the surface of a conductor.
5. The electric field is perpendicular to the surface of that
conductor.
 Type of Conductors
Electrical conductors can be classified based
on their Ohmic Response. They are: Ohmic
Conductors
This type of conductors always follows Ohm’s
Law: R=V/I V I
Examples:
Aluminum, Silver, Copper etc.
 Non-Ohmic Conductors
This type of conductors never follows
Ohm’s Law (V ∝ I)
V vs. I graph does not give a straight line
(nonlinear graph)
Examples:
LDR (Light Dependent Resistor), Diode,
Filament of Bulb, Thermistors, etc
How Does a Conductor Conduct Current?
When a potential difference occurs in the
conductor across two points, the electrons get
sufficient energy to flow from lower potency to
higher potency in this conduction band against
a small resistance offered by this conductor
material. Electricity or current flows in the
opposite direction of the flow of the electrons.
 How an electron flows through a conductor?
Electrons do not move or flow in a straight line. In a conductor, the
electrons are in to and fro motion or random velocity i.e. is called
drift velocity (Vd) or average velocity. Due to this Drift Velocity, the
electrons get collisions every moment with atoms or another electron
in the conduction band of the conductor.
Drift velocity is quite small, as there are so many free electrons. We
can estimate the density of free electrons in a conductor, thus we can
calculate the drift velocity for a given current. The larger the density,
the lower the velocity required for a given current.
In the Conductor, the flow of the electrons is against the electric
field(E).
Scattering of electrons reduces conductivity
Resistivity due to thermal vibrations and Lattice Defects
 Factors affecting conductivity
• Temperature:
Conductivity of a metal/alloy generally
increases by 2 to 3 percent for each degree
rise in temperature. With increase in
temperature, the conductivity increases.
• Impurities:
Increasing impurities concentration reduces the
metal ability to conduct.
Resistivity due to Cold Work and Alloying Content
Solid Solution effect on Resistivity
 References
• https://byjus.com/physics/conductors-insulators/
• https://www.nde-ed.org/Physics/Electricity/conductorsinsu
lators.xhtml
• https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/topics/zgy39j6/articles/zd7
94xs