MICROBIOLOGY

AGR 405: SOIL MICROBIOLOGY, FERTILITY AND
PLANT NUTRITION (COURSE OUTLINE)
Major groups of soil micro-organisms

Microbial interrelationships and biochemical functions in
relation to soil productivity
Microbiological transformations of nutrient elements and
other compounds (eg. Pesticides) in the soil
Animal and plant residue decomposition
Soil organic matter, its properties and importance
Composting and practical compost preparation
Concept of soil fertility
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Concept of soil fertility
Soil Fertility maintenance, evaluation and alteration (through
fertilizer use, lime, manure, cropping systems, etc)
Soil testing and plant analysis
Mechanisms of nutrient uptake
Crop growth and response to nutrients
Mineral nutrition of plants, essentiality and availability of
plant nutrients
Field and pot experimental techniques

REFERENCES
1.Alexander, M. (1977). Introduction to Soil Microbiology.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 467pp.
2.Tisdale, S. L., Nelson, W. L., Beaton, J. D. & Havlin, J.
(1993). Soil Fertility and Fertilizers. New York: Macmillan
Publishing Co. 634 pp.
3.Campbell, J. R., Hall, C. and Smith, L. H. (1978). Soils and
Soil Fertility. New York: McGraw-Hill Inc. 516pp.

 SOIL MICRO-ORGANISMS
 Major groups of soil organisms
 Bacteria, Algae, Actinomycetes, Protozoa and Fungi
BACTERIA
 Single-celled organisms
 One of the simplest and smallest life forms
 Multiply by elongating and binary fission (dividing into 2 parts).
 Bateria are often called “fission fungi”.
 The rapid multiplication allows bacteria to function under favourable
conditions.
 Bacteria are very small.
 Individual bacteria seldom exceed 4 or 5 um (0.004 – 0.005mm) in length.
 Bacteria are varied in shape: Round, rod-like or spiral.
 Note: Role of soil Bacteria such as Nitrobacter, Nitrosomonas, Azotobacter,
etc.

CONDITIONS AFFECTING GROWTH OF BACTERIA
 Many conditions of the soil affect the growth of bacteria.
 Among the most important are: Oxygen requirements, Moisture range,
Temperature range, Organic matter requirements and Exchangeable Ca
and pH relationship
1. Oxygen requirements:
 Some bacteria use mostly oxygen (aerobic)
 Some function in the absence of oxygen (anaerobic)
 Some use either of the above forms (facultative)
 All three of the above types usually function in a soil at one time
2. Moisture range:
 Optimum moisture level for higher plants is usually best for most bacteria
 The moisture content affects oxygen supply

3. Suitable temperature range:
 Bacterial activity is generally greatest from 21 to 29oC
 Ordinary soil temperature extremes seldom kill bacteria
4. Organic matter requirements:

 Used as energy source for majority of bacteria (heterotrophic)
 Organic matter not required as energy source for others (autotrophic)
5. Exchangeable calcium and pH relationship:

 High calcium, pH(6-8) is generally best for most bacteria
 Calcium and pH values determine the specific bacteria present
 Certain bacteria function at very low pH (+ 3.0) and others at high pH
values

SOIL ACTINOMYCETES (ACTINO)
1. Resemble MOULDS because they are: filamentous, profusely branched and
produce fruiting bodies.
2. Their mycelia threads are, however, smaller than those of fungi.
3. Actinomycetes (Actino) are similar to BACTERIA because they are unicellular
and about the same diameter.
 When they breakup into spores, they closely resemble bacteria.
 On the basis of organization, "Actino" occupy a position between true moulds

and bacteria.
 Often classified with fungi BUT are sometimes called “thread bacteria”.
 IMPORTANCE : "Actino" are important in the decomposition of Soil OM and

the liberation of nutrients (mineralization).
 They reduce resistant compounds eg. Cellulose, chitin and phospholipids
into simpler forms. Abundance of "Actino" implies a higher breakdown of

complex compound.
CONDITIONS AFFECTING THE GROWTH OF
ACTINOMYCETES
 "Actino" develop best in moist, well-aerated soils.
 They are sensitive to acid-soil conditions
 Prohibited growth at pH 5.0 and below
 Optimal development at pH 6.0-7.5
 This relationship of soil reaction and "Actino" is used to control
potato scab, an "Actino" disease.

 Sulphur is used to reduce pH sufficient to control the disease.

SOIL FUNGI
 Over 690 spp. representing 170 genera of fungi identified.
 Like bacteria and Actino., Fungi contain NO CHLOROPHYLL and depend on the
OM of the soil for their growth.
 Main Characteristic of Fungi = FILAMENTOUS NATURE of vegetative forms.
 Mycelia threads may be simple or profusely branched.
 Spore-forming or fruiting bodies of some groups attain macroscopic size.
 Fungal organisms vary from: simple microscopic yeast to mushrooms.
 Fungi are divided into 3 groups: 1. Yeast 2. Moulds 3. Mushroom fungi
 (2) and (3) are considered important in soils.
 (1) yeast - occur to limited extent in soils. Friday 19 April 2024

9
 Fungi decompose organic residue.
Complex compounds - Cellulose/starch/gums/ lignin and
Simple Compounds – Proteins and sugars.
 MOLDS aid in Humus formation and aggregate stabilization.
 Fungi transform into their tissues, Carbon and Nitrogen and give
off by-products CO2 and NH3.

However, Fungi CANNOT oxidize NH3 compounds into NO3 NOR can
they fix atm. N. as bacteria do.

MYCORRHIZAE
 Are associations between fungi and the roots of higher plants.
 The mycelia of the fungus infect the plant roots, giving an association
Mycorrhizae, a term meaning “Fungus root”.
 Mycorrhizae are divided into 2 general classes based on the interaction
of the fungal hyphae and the root cells.

 Ectotrophic group (=Ectomycorrhizae). Fungal hyphae (FY) penetrate
between the cells of the cortex but do not enter the cells.
 Endotrophic group (=Endomycorrhizae). FY penetrate into the cortex and
epidermis (=Cortical and epidermal cells) of the root.

 In both cases, the fungus secretes enzymes that enable it to penetrate into
the plant root.

 The root – fungal association is of mutual benefit to host plant and
fungus. (WHY??).
 REASONS
 Fungi utilize carbohydrates of the plant.
 Plants – uptake of nutrients especially, P, is increased due to increased
root surface area for nutrient absorption.

 BENEFITS
 Growth of mycorrhizae infected plants exceeds that of uninfected plants.
 Mycorrhizae take part in organic matter decomposition and thereby
increase soil fertility.

Role of blue-green algae on rice fields
 Blue-green algae are abundant in Rice fields/soils.
 When lands are flooded and exposed to the sun (radiant energy),
atm. N2 is fixed or changed into combined forms by these

organisms.
 Algae utilize the CO2 in swamp soils and create suitable
conditions for rice plant growth.
 Roots of rice have a large supply of dissolved O2 in swamp H2O
due to photosynthetic activity of algae.

 This enables rice to grow under swamp/flooded conditions.

 Algae and Autotrophic Bacteria synthesize OM from inorganic materials.
SOIL ALGAE
 Algae are distributed on soil surface when light and moisture are
present.
 Most algae possess chlorophyll and are able to perform
PHOTOSYNTHESIS.
 Most algae live at or very near to the surface of the soil.
 However, a few algae obtain their energy from OM and live within or
below the soil Horizon.
 Algae are divided into 3 general groups:
1. Blue–green 2. Green 3. Diatoms
 The growth of algae is stimulated by the application of farm yard
manure.
 Both green and blue-green algae outnumber the diatoms.
 Algae contribute to increasing the OM content of the soil.

PROTOZOA
 Simplest form of animal life.
 Also one – celled organisms BUT are LARGER and have a greater
ORGANIZATION than Bacteria. eg. Amoeba exhibits a much higher

development and is protected with silicaceous or chitinous covering
 Protozoa are grouped into three:
 1. Amoeba 2. Ciliates 3. Flagellates.

 The presence of cilia or hair and of flagella or long, whip-like
appendages are the basis for subdivisions 2 and 3 respectively.

 Order of occurrence in the soil: Flagellates >amoeba >ciliates.
 Protozoa are the most varied and numerous micro-fauna in soils.

 A considerable number of animal and human diseases are attributed to
protozoa infections.
 Protozoa in the soil protect/defend plants against invasion by pathogenic
bacteria.
 Protozoa also take part in soil processes such as the decomposition of
certain organic substances. Eg. Protozoa in the intestinal tract of termites

feed on wood (cellulose).
 Protozoa also readily assimilate soluble organic and inorganic constituents
in manure.
 Thus preventing the soluble substances from being leached out of the
surface and subsurface soil horizons.

BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF SOIL ORGANISMS
 The most significant contribution of the soil fauna and flora to higher plants
include:
 Organic matter decomposition
 Inorganic transformations
 Nitrogen Fixation
 Breakdown of Toxic Compounds
 Plant Protection
 Organic matter decomposition
 The breakdown of plant residues prevent unwanted accumulation.
 Nutrients held in organic combinations (eg. nitrogen) within these residues
are released for use by plants.
 The stability of soil aggregates is enhanced by the slimy intermediate
products of decay AND the more resistant portion, humus.
 Plants naturally profit from these beneficial chemical and physical effects.

Inorganic transformations
 Formation of ammonium compounds and nitrates as a result
of biochemical transfers of proteins and N related compounds.
 Important to higher plants since the plants absorb most of their
nitrogen in ammonium and nitrate forms.
 Another eg. is production of SO42- from H2S or elemental S.
 Inorganic changes also include those relating to mineral
elements such as Fe and Mn.
 In well-drained soils Fe and Mn are oxidized by autotrophic
organisms to their higher valency states.
 Their solubilities then become low under fairly acid soil pH.
 Toxic quantities of Fe and Mn in soil solution would adversely
affect plant growth.
 Nitrogen Fixation
Microbial activity aids in the transformation of atmospheriic N before it
can be used directly by higher plants.

 Two groups of bacteria are involved in N fixation:
The nodule organisms (Rhizobia) and free-fixing soil bacteria.

Rhizobia use the carbohydrates of their hosts as an energy source, fix
the nitrogen, and pass part of it on to the infected host.

The free-fixing soil bacteria acquire their energy from the soil organic
matter, fix the free nitrogen, and make it a part of their own tissue.
When they die and decay, part of this nitrogen is available to higher
plants.
 Breakdown of Toxic Compounds
Toxins produced by soil organisms as metabolic by-products are
applied purposefully by humans as agrochemicals to kill pests, and

some are deposited in the soil.
If these compounds accumulate unchanged, they will do serious
ecological damage.
However, most biologically produced toxins do not remain long in the
soil but are broken down enzymatically by soil organisms.

 Plant Protection
Certain soil organisms act to protect plant roots from invasion by soil
parasites and pathogens.

INJURIOUS EFFECTS OF SOIL ORGANISMS ON
HIGHER PLANTS
 Plant pathogens:-
 Bacteria, Fungi and Actinomycetes
 Fungi responsible for soil borne diseases, Eg. Wilts, Damping off, root
rot,club root of cabbage.

 Induction of nutrient deficiencies and toxicities:-
 Oxidized forms of N, S, Fe and Mn are reduced by microbial action under
O2 deficient conditions.
 Reduced forms of N and S may be lost to the atmosphere in gaseous form.
 Fe and Mn reduction may result in soluble forms that would be toxic
especially if the soil is acidic.

Competition for Nutrients:-
P, K, and Ca are competed for by micro-organisms and higher
plants.
Competition for trace elements by microorganisms and higher
plants could be more severe since microorganisms utilize these

limited amounts of nutrients first before the rest is available to
higher plants.
Depletion of O2 supply:-
Especially in poor aeration.
Microorganisms utilize the limited O2 supply first.

ECOLOGICAL RELATIONSHIPS AND INTERACTIONS
IN THE SOIL
 Ecology – study of organisms and the environment.
 It entaiils the study of the relationships between living organisms
and their interactions with their natural or developed environment.

 The interactions between and among soil microbes are
predominantly symbiotic associations. symbiosis.docx

 Symbiosis is an association between two organisms or populations
that is stable as far as there are no environmental changes. If there

is a change such as water stress, etc., the association is affected.

sym·bi·o·sis [sìm bī ṓssiss, sìmbee ṓssiss]
(plural sym·bi·o·ses [sìm bī ṓ sz]) noun
1. close association of animals or plants: a close association
of animals or plants of different species that is often, but not
always, of mutual benefit
 2. mutually beneficial relationship: a cooperative, mutually
beneficial relationship between two people or groups
Microsoft® Encarta® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft
Corporation. All rights reserved.

Types of ecological interactions between soil microbes
The main types of biological or ecological interactions are:
1. Mutualism
2. Photo-cooperation
3. Neutralism
4. Commensalism
5. Synergism
 6. Antagonism
a. Competition
b. Ammensalism
c. Predation
d. Parasitism

Mutualism involves a relationship in which both organisms or
populations derive benefit.
Photo-cooperation involves a relationship in which both
organisms∕ populations derive benefit but their existence does
not necessarily depend on their association.
Neutralism is a relationship in which neither of the organisms
derive benefit from the association.
Commensalism is a relationship in which one partner benefits
whiles the other is unaffected.
Synergism is an association where the combined benefits∕
activities of the organisms involved exceeds the individual
activities∕ benefits of the two.

Antagonism is an association in which one or both partners suffer
in the relationship. There are four types of antagonism.
These are:
competition, ammensalism, predation and parasitism.
 a. Competition: The two organisms in the relationship
are limited by their joint dependence on one type of
nutrient.
 b. Ammensalism: One partner of the association is
inhibited by the toxins produced from the other.
 c. Predation: This involves the ingestion of one
organism in the relationship by another.
 d. Parasitism: This is an association in which one
organism obtains nutrients from the living tissues of the other.

MICROBIOLOGICAL TRANSFORMATIONS OF
NUTRIENT ELEMENTS AND OTHER
COMPOUNDS IN THE SOIL
 MICROBIAL TRANSFORMATION OF NITROGEN
 Nitrogen (N) is one of the nutrients absorbed by plants in high quantities.
 N forms the building block for the synthesis of cell peptides and proteins (N is a major
constituent of amino acids).

 N is a component of the genetic material of cell (nucleic acids).
 Occurrence in the soil:
 Organic N associated with humus
 Soluble inorganic ammonium(NH4+)
 Nitrate (NO3- ) compounds
 NO3- - N fixed by clay minerals

PATHWAYS OF SOIL NITROGEN
 GAINS:
 N fixation
 Atm N deposition of nitric, nitrous oxides and ammonia (NO, N2O, NH3)
 Application of N-containing fertilizers
 Addition of organic materials
 LOSSES:
 Plant and microbial utilization
 Loss in drainage water, especially NO3-
 Gaseous losses (denitrification, decomposition of N-containing compounds

MINERALIZATION AND IMMOBILIZATION OF NITROGEN
 N mineralization –
 Soil process in which organic nitrogen is converted to mineral, inorganic or
available N.
 Also referred to as the degradation of proteins, amino acids and nuceic acids
into NH4+ or mineral form.

 N immobilization – Conversion of mineral or inorganic or available N into
organic or the unavailable form.

 The two processes operate simultaneously in the soil and are mutually
dependent.
Immobilization
Available N Organic N
Mineralization
(Inorganic, Available ( Unavailable form)
Or mineral form)
 The direction of the equilibrium depends on:
a). Soil N status
b). C:N ratio of the material incorporated into the soil.

 Equilibrium reaction: Occurs when the material or crop residue to be
decomposed consists of 40 % C and 1.6 % N (C:N ratio of 25:1).

 N mineralization occurs when the C:N ratio is < 20.
 N immobilization occurs when C:N ratio is > 30.
 No net mineralization or immobilization occurs at C:N ratio Between 20 and
30.
 C:N ratio and time lag ploughed in straw.
 Need for time lag and application of basal dressing of N fertilizer/ completely
decomposed organic matter/compost.

MICROORGANISMS INVOLVED IN MINERALIZATION OF NITROGEN
 Bacteria (Pseudomonas, Bacillus, Clostridium, Serratia,
Micrococcus, Arthrobacter,etc.)
 Fungi (Alternataria, Aspergillus, Mucor, Penicillium, Rhizopus)
 Actinomycetes

MICROBIAL TRANSFORMATION OF NITROGEN (CONT’D).
 NITRIFICATION
 During mineralization of organic matter, NH4+ (ammonium ion) is initially
formed from atmospheric N2 through the process called Ammonification.
 The NH4+ formed is microbially transformed to NO2- and to NO3-, through the
process called Nitrification.

 This process involves the oxidation of NH4+ to NO2- and to NO3-.
 The process is mainly carried out by Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter.
 Broadly, nitrification entails the biological oxidation of any reduced form of
nitrogen to a more oxidized form.

 Recall: Definition of oxidation in terms of gain of O2 and loss of electrons.

 The fungus Aspergillus flavus converts ammonium to nitrate to a less extent
compared to autotrophic nitrifying bacteria.
 The conversion of NH4+ compounds by the autotrophic nitrifying bacteria
involves two steps:
 STEP ONE: Conversion of NH4+ to NO2- by autotrophic bacteria,

Nitrosomonas.
 The intermediate compound formed is hydroxylamine.
 Hyponitrite is then formed from hydroxylamine. However, it is not stable and
therefore is quickly converted to NO2- at a fast rate.

 NH4+ + O2 + H+ + 2e NH2OH + H2O NO2- + 5H+ + 4e
(Hydroxylamine) Hyponitrite (Nitrite)
 Corynobacteria and Nocardia generate NO2- from hydroxylamine (NH2OH).

 STEP TWO: Oxidation of NO2- to NO3- by Nitrobacter.
 The reaction is promoted by Mo contained in the nitrite activity
system.
H2O OH -2H+
 HO – N = O HO – N HO – NO2
Mo OH
(Nitrite) (Nitrate)

DENITRIFICATION
 It is the process where nitrate replaces oxygen as the electron
acceptor during soil microbial respiration. The process is often

referred to as dissimilatory nitrate reduction.
 Denitrification occurs due to:
 (a) Insufficient oxygen diffusion rates in soil to supply the demand
from microbial respiration. Eg. during recent addition of organic

residues or soil is at or near water saturation.
 (b) Water-saturated aggregates of microsites in aerated soils being
large enough to restrict sufficiently the diffusion of oxygen.

+2H+
NH2OH4 2NH3
-H2O
+4H+ +4H+ +2H+

2HNO3 2HNO2 [O=NH--NH=O] N2
-2H2O -2H2O - H 2O
Hydroxylamine +2H+ -H2O
N2O
The chemical process of denitrification
 Egs. of soil denitrifying bacteria: Pseudomonas,

Alcaligens denitrificans, Bacillus
licheniformes, Paracoccus denitrificans, Alcaligens eutrophus, Thiobacillus
denitrificans, Rhodopseudomonas sphaeroides, Bacillus cereus, Micrococcus,
Achromobacter, etc.
Environmental consequences of nitrification and denitrification
 Nitrate is a highly mobile anion in the soil and is readily leached
through the soil profile into drainage water.
 The loss of nitrates from the soil through leaching can result
environmental pollution.
 The consequences are as follows:-
 Eutrophication:
 An environmental consequence of NO3- leaching is Eutrophication (=
Enrichment of H2O with nutrients and depletion of O2).
 Algal blooms and aquatic plant growth occurs which prevents sunlight
penetration.
 Degradation by heterotrophic microbes leads to waters depleted of O2
and death of many freshwater fish and aquatic organisms.

 Human Health Hazards:
 (a). ‘Blue-Baby’ disease or Methaemoglobinaemia in infants when they take in water
containing a high concentration of nitrate.

 The blood stream supply of oxygen is restricted by the competitive complexation of the
haemoglobin with nitrite in place of oxygen.

 (b). Nitrate can react with secondary amines in the soil to produce nitrosamines which
can be assimilated by plants.

 However, nitrosamines are believed to be associated with cancer in human.
 Destruction of the Ozone layer:
 Nitrous oxide (N2O) produced during denitrification is oxidized in the stratosphere (occurs
between the troposphere and mesosphere – 10 to 50 km above the earth’s surface) to

nitric oxide (NO) which destroys the ozone layer. Nitrous oxide can also be destructive to
ozone layer.
MICROBIAL TRANSFORMATION OF SULPHUR
 Introduction:
 Sulphur (S) is an essential element required by all forms of life. In plants, it is an
important component of certain amino acids (methionine and cysteine) and of a

large number of organic compounds that comprise enzyme system.
 Soil gains of S: (i) addition of organic matter (ii) atmospheric deposition
(iii) application of sulphur containing fertilizers

 Transformation: Based on the transformational cycle of S, microbial transformation
can be grouped into four:-

 Immobilization of inorganic sulphur
 Mineralization of organic sulphur to inorganic sulphur
 Oxidation of elemental sulphur and inorganic sulphur compounds
 Reduction of sulphate and incomplete oxidation of sulphur

 Immobilization of Inorganic Sulphur:
 The transformation involves the conversion of inorganic sulphur in the soil to organic form
mainly by plants and microorganisms.
Organic sulphur
Immobilization Immobilization
Mineralization Mineralization
Oxidation
Sulphate Sulphide
Reduction
Reduction Oxidation
Oxidation Reduction
Elemental Sulphur
Transformational cycle of Sulphur

 Mineralization of Organic Sulphur:
 During mineralization of organic sulphur, some of the mineralized sulphur
compounds are assimilated by microorganisms and the excess sulphur is released.

 There are two forms of mineralized sulphur, sulphate (SO 42-) and sulphide (S2-).
 The form depends on aerobic and anaerobic conditions.
 Microorganisms responsible for mineralization of sulphur are Microsporium gypsium

and some fungi.
 Oxidation:
 The oxidation of sulphur is mainly carried out by the genus called Thiobacillus.
 The microbes of this genus are mostly obligate or facultative chemoautotrophs. The
two oxidized forms are SO42- and elemental sulphur (S).

 Some of the S oxidation reactions are as follows:
 (i) S SO32- SO42-
(Sulphite) (Sulphate)
 (ii) S SO32- SSO3 -

(Thiosulphate)
 (iii) Cleavage of thiosulphate to sulphite or conversion to tetrathionate which is
then metabolized to sulphur or sulphite and finally oxidized to sulphate.
 i.e.
S SO32-
 -SSO3 - O3SSSSO3 SO42-

(Tetrathionate)
SO32-

 The SO42- formed reacts with H2O to form H2SO4 which enhances
solubilization of some minerals.

 Some of the Thiobacillus species that act on S include T. Thioxidans, T.
denitrificans, T. novellus and T. ferroxidans.
 Reduction:
 Reduction of sulphur occurs especially in waterlogged soils.
 The addition of organic matter and high temperatures also favour reduction
of sulphur.
 The reduction process is enhanced in soils with low redox potential
(tendency of an element to loss or gain of electrons, measured in mV) and

retarded by (i) good aeration and (ii) the accumulation of nitrate.
TRANSFORMATION OF ORGANIC PHOSPHORUS
 Organic phosphorus in the soil is derived from plant residues and partly
synthesized by microorganisms from inorganic phosphates.

 There are three main groups of phosphorus-containing compounds in plants and
microorganisms. These groups are (i) Nucleic acids (ii) Phospholipids and (iii)
Phytin (calcium-magnesium salt of inositol hexaphosphate).
 Other less dominant groups are phosphorylated sugars and co-enzymes.
 The four main processes of phosphorus transformation are:-
 Solubilization of inorganic phosphorus
 Mineralization
 Immobilization
 Oxidation-reduction of inorganic phosphorus.

 Solubilization
 It involves the conversion of inorganic P to available form by microbes.
 The different ways by which inorganic P is solubilised are (i) formation of acids and
(ii) reducing effect (gaining of electrons by P-containing compounds).
 Examples of microbial solubilisation of N, S and P by acid production are:
 the formation of nitric acid from ammonia by nitrifying bacteria and
 the formation of sulphuric acid from sulphur by bacteria of the genus Thiobacillus.
 The formation of phosphoric acid from phosphates.
 Microorganisms involved in solubilisation include Pseudomonas, Bacillus,
Mycobacterium, Penicillium, Flavobacterium, Micrococcus and Aspergillus.
 Mineralization
 It involves the conversion of organic phosphorus to inorganic phosphorus.
 The organic phosphorus compounds are generally resistant to degradation because
they:
 1. occur with plant particles and 2. form resistant complexes of organic
phosphorus compounds and other organic substances.

 However, microorganisms are capable of mineralizing organic P by the
action of phosphate enzymes.
 Eg. phytase can catalyze the hydrolysis of phytic acid to release inositol
and phosphate.
 The enzyme phytase can be synthesized by Penicillium, Streptomycetes,
Pseudomonas, Aspergillus, etc.
 Immobilization
 It involves the conversion of available or inorganic P compounds to organic
phosphorus compounds.
 It occurs when high amounts of available carbon and low available
phosphorus (high C:P ratio) are present in the decomposing organic
material.
 Immobilization also occurs if organic matter incorporated into the soil
contains < 0.2 % P. Friday 19 April 2024
47
Oxidation-Reduction reactions involving inorganic P Compounds
 Oxidation: Reduced compounds of phosphorus can be oxidized
biologically to PO42- by heterotrophic bacteria and fungi.
 Reduction: Phosphate can be reduced by anaerobes.
 It mainly occurs when phosphate fertilizer is added to a flooded soil.
 Stepwise Reduction of inorganic P compounds
 H3PO4 H3PO3 H3PO2 PH3
(phosphate) (phosphite) (hypophosphite) (phosphine)

ANIMAL AND PLANT RESIDUE DECOMPOSITION
 COMPOSITION OF PLANT RESIDUES
 The moisture content of plant residues varies from 60 to 90 %, with a mean
value of 75 %.
 On weight basis, the dry matter is mostly C and O, with less than 10 % each
of H and inorganic elements (ash).
 However, on an elemental basis (number of atoms of the elements),
hydrogen predominates (eg. C6H12O6).
 Even though more than 90 % of the dry matter is C, H and O, the other
elements play a vital role in plant nutrition and microorganism body
requirements.
 N, P, K, S , Ca and Mg are particularly significant, as are micronutrients
contained in plant materials.

RATE OF DECOMPOSITION
 Organic compounds vary greatly in their rate of decomposition.

 Their ease of decomposition are as follows:-
 1. Sugar, starches and
simple proteins rapidly decomposed
 2. Crude proteins
 3. Hemicellulose
 4. Cellulose
 5. Fats, waxes, etc. very slowly decomposed
 6. Lignins and phenolic
compounds decreasing
ease of decomposition

 These compounds usually decompose simultaneously when fresh plant tissue is
added to a soil.
 The rate at which decomposition occurs, however, decreases from the top to
the bottom of the list.
 Sugars and water-soluble proteins are examples of readily available energy
and protein sources for soil organisms.
 Lignins are a very resistant source of food, although they eventually supply
much of the total energy.
 When organic tissue is added to soil, three general reactions take place:
 1. The bulk of the material undergoes enzymatic oxidation with release
of carbon dioxide, water, and heat as by-products.
 2. The essential elements, N, P, and S are released or immobilized by a
series of specific reactions.
 3. Compounds resistant to microbial action are formed either from
compounds in the plant tissues or by microbial synthesis. Friday 19 April 2024
51
 DECOMPOSITION AS AN OXIDATIVE PROCESS
 In spite of the differences in composition of organic compounds, the ultimate end
products of decay are similar if aerobic organisms are involved.
 Under aerobic conditions the major portion of all of these compounds undergoes
essentially a ”burning” or oxidation process.
 The oxidizable fractions of organic materials are composed largely of C and H, which
make up more than one half of the dry weight.
 Consequently, the complete oxidation of most of the organic compounds in the soil
may be expressed as follows:
enzymic oxidation
 [C,4H] + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O + Energy
(Carbon and Hydrogen
containing compounds)
 However, many intermediate steps are involved in this over-all reaction.
 Also, important side reactions which involve elements other than C and H are
occurring simultaneously.
 Nonetheless, the stated basic reaction accounts for most of the organic matter
decomposition in the soil.
BREAKDOWN OF PROTEINS
 Plant proteins and related compounds yield other very important products upon
decomposition (in addition to the CO2 and H2O previously mentioned).
 Eg. Plant proteins break down into several amides and amino acids.
 Once these compounds are formed, they may be hydrolyzed readily to CO2,
NH4+ compounds and other products.
 The NH4+ compounds may be changed to NO3-, which is the form higher plants
take upon much of their nitrogen.

ORGANIC MATTER DECAY
 When limited decomposable materials are in the soil, microbial numbers and activity are low.
 In this case, small populations of autochthonous (indigenous) organisms survive by slowly
and steadily digesting the very resistant, stable soil organic matter.
 Under favourable conditions of abundant fresh, decomposable tissue, the number of soil
microorganisms suddenly increases many fold.

 The slower acting autochthonous populations are overtaken by rapidly multiplying
populations of zymogenous (opportunistic) organisms become active from their dormant state
by the presence of fresh organic substrate.
 Subsequently, microbial activity reaches its peak and energy is liberated rapidly with the
release of carbon dioxide in large quantities.

 Different bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes soon become fully active, decomposing and
synthesizing organic materials at the same time.

 The soil organic matter then contains a variety of intermediate products, ranging from
the more stable compounds, such as lignins, to microbial cells, both living and dead.
 The microbial tissue may even account for as much as one half of the organic
fraction of a soil.
 Dead microbial cells soon decay, and the compounds present are ingested by living
microbes with the evolution of CO2.
 As the readily available energy is used up and food supplies diminish, microbial
activity reduces.
 The general purpose soil organisms then release simple products such as NO3- and
SO42-.
 The organic matter now remaining is a dark, incoherent, and heterogeneous colloidal
mass, usually referred to as humus.
 The decomposition of both plant residues and soil organic matter is a process of
enzymatic digestion.
 The products of these enzymatic activities include the following:
(a) energy appropriated by the microorganisms or liberated as heat,
(b) simple products, and
(c) humus.
SIMPLE DECOMPOSITION PRODUCTS
 As the enzymatic changes of soil organic matter proceed, simple products begin to
manifest themselves.
 Some of these, especially CO2 and H2O, appear immediately.
 Others, such as NO3–N, accumulate only after the peak of the vigorous decomposition
is over and the general purpose decay organisms have diminished in numbers.
 The more common simple products resulting from the activity of the soil
microorganisms may be listed as follows:
 Carbon CO2 , CO32- , HCO3- , CH4, elemental carbon
 Nitrogen NH4+, NO2, NO3-, gaseous nitrogen
 Sulphur S, H2S, SO3-, SO42-
 Phosphorus H3PO4 , H3PO3 , H3PO2 , PH3
 Others H2O, O2, H2, H+, OH-, Ca++, Mg++, etc.

SOIL ORGANIC MATTER (SOM)
SOM is a mixture of dead and decomposing materials and
inorganic compounds.
SOM is derived mainly from:
(i). Plant tissue decomposition and

(ii). Decomposing microfauna and microflora.
SOM is considered as the key factor to sustainable land
management because of its role in maintaining soil fertility.

PHYSICO-CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SOM
 1. Chemical Oxidation:-
 OM absorbs atmospheric O2 in the presence of an alkali.
 Products formed as a result of oxygen absorption or oxidation include QUINONE
(involved in electron transport in photosynthesis).
 2. Solubility in Water:-
 The salts of divalent and trivalent cations react with SOM to form insoluble
compounds.
 Insolubility of OM is related to its association with the colloidal fraction of clay.
 However, isolated OM is partly soluble in water and some OM is lost by leaching.
 3. Cation Exchange(CE):-
 20 – 70 % of CEC in many soils is caused by SOM.
 Soils with high OM content therefore have high CEC.
 The exchange is attained by furnishing of H+ by carboxyl, phenolic, carbonyl and
hydroxyl groups to exchange with other cations.
 4. Interaction of OM with Clay:-
 Organic substances are held to clay surfaces by columbic (between ions) and
Van der Waal (between molecules) forces.
 Organic materials e.g. humic acids are strongly adsorbed to clay minerals
which are negatively charged even though these organic materials are also
negatively charged.
 The adsorption is through cations (Fe3+ and Al3+) that form bridges between
clay minerals and organic materials.
 Positively charged clay particles are bonded to organic materials through
forces of attraction.
 5. Colour:-
 The typical dark colour of many soils is caused by OM.
 Dark soils are usually fertile and not all dark soils are fertile.
 Because the colour could be due to the colour of the Parent material from
which the soil is derived.

 6. Water Retention:-
 OM retains up to 20 times its weight in water.
 This physical property helps reduce drying and shrinking of the soil and
 OM significantly improves the moisture retaining properties of sandy
soils.
 7. Interaction of Organic Matter with Metals:-
 Humic acids react with metal ions to form complexes (See importance of
SOM).

IMPORTANCE OF SOIL ORGANIC MATTER (SOM)
 1. Source of Plant Nutrients:-
 SOM is a major source of plant nutrients.
 It supplies 95 % N, 40 % P and 90 % S of the soil.
 Decomposition and turnover of SOM can therefore supply most
macro- and micro-nutrients needed for plant growth.
 2. Source of energy and Production of Binding agents:-
 Provision of energy for soil microbial activity.
 During decomposition, microbes assimilate complex organic
substances for energy and release inorganic materials.
 Microbes metabolise organic compounds to produce binding
agents such as POLYSACCHARIDES that GLUE mineral
particles into aggregates.

 3. Role in Soil Aggregation and Root Development:-
 Aggregate stability of soils influences water infiltration, moisture content, drainage,
aeration and root development.
 SOM therefore makes the physical environment of soils (improvement of soil
structure) suitable for root development and crop growth.
4. SOM Increases Exchange Capacity:
 SOM has a high exchange capacity for both cations and anions.
 The negative charges within soil organic matter are derived from carboxyl, hydroxyl,
phenolic and carbonyl functional groups.
 Cations are adsorbed or attracted to those negatively changed sites.
 These cations could be replaced by other cations OR are absorbed by plants.
 CEC of organic materials is positively correlated to the degree of humification.
 Between 20 % - 70 % of CEC of most soils is caused by SOM.
 Positive charges of SOM are derived from the protanation of an amine group.
(i.e. –NH2 + 2H+ NH4+)
 Anion retention by SOM is important in mineral nutrition of Cl- and other anions.

 5. Chelation and Retention of Metals:-
 Chelation is an equilibrium reaction between a metal and a complexing agent, resulting
in the formation of multiple bonds of a ring structure incorporating the metal. i.e.
O
R C ELECTROSTATIC ATTRACTION
O – -- -- -- -- -- Mn+
OH
O
R C O
Mn+ + H+
O
 [Mn+ = Cation with charge n+; R = Remainder of Humic molecule].
 OM forms stable complexes with Cu2+, Mn2+, Zn2+ and other polyvalent cations.
 Chelation prevents the toxic effects of micronutrients in plants.

 6. Buffer Action:-
 OM exhibits buffering capacity/action in slightly acid, neutral and alkaline
soils.
 OM buffers the soil against rapid changes in acidity, alkalinity and salinity.
 The buffering capacity of SOM is due to the colloidal humus which holds
Al3+ and H+.
 OM helps to maintain a uniform soil reaction and reduces fluctuations in
pH due to the acids and bases that are continuously produced in field
soils.
 Fluctuations in pH would adversely affect many plants since they grow
well within a fairly narrow pH range (5.5 - 6.5).

 7. Ensuring Water Conservation and Efficiency Use:-
 OM can hold up to 20 times its weight in water.
 OM therefore improves infiltration, decreases water losses, provides better drainage

in fine-textured soils and increases plant available water for absorption by plants.
 SOM significantly improves the moisture-retention capacity of sandy soils.
 8. Prevention of P Fixation:-
 Amorphous oxides fix P and prevents its availability to plants.
 SOM can form complexes/chelate amorphous oxides.
 The complex formation prevents P from being fixed by Amorphous oxides.
 9. Biodegradation of Pesticides
 OM has the ability to react/combine with organic molecules.
 OM therefore affects bioactivity, persistence and biodegradability of pesticides.
 OM subsequently modifies pesticide application rates for effective control.

COMPOSTING AND COMPOST PREPARATION
 COMPOSTING
 Compost is composed of the decomposed remains of plant and animal matter e.g.
Crop residue, grass, dead/by products of animals and kitchen wastes.

 Composting is a microbial process that depends on the growth and activities of mixed
populations of actinomycetes, bacteria and fungi that are indigenous to the organic
wastes they are composed of.
 USDA Definition – Composting is the aerobic thermophilic decomposition of organic
wastes by mixed populations of indigenous micro-organisms under controlled

conditions that yields partially stabilised organic material.
 The partially stabilized organic material of decomposition is referred to as COMPOST.

 APPLICATIONS OF COMPOSTING
 Production of compost may be for agriculture and horticulture use.
 Treatment of organic waste – e.g. Sewage sludge, refuse/hazardous waste are
transformed into bio-fertilizers.

 Production of selective substrate for the cultivation of mushrooms – e.g. use of
compost from animal and poultry manure, straw, saw dust, cotton waste, etc.
METHODS OF COMPOST PREPARATION

 2 main methods – STACK and PIT METHODS.
 Both require the same material and same time to make.
 Pit method = low rainfall areas/dry season.
 Stack method = high rainfall areas/wet season.

 PREPARATION OF COMPOST
 INVOLVES site selection, foundation laying, materials required and their build
up, testing, turning and storage.

 1. SITE SELECTION:
 Well-drained plain ground protected by shrubs.
 Size of heap depends on materials available.
 For stack method – 4 stakes are knocked into the ground; for pit method, a pit
is dug.
 2. FOUNDATION LAYING:
 Consists of straw to a thickness of 10 cm.
 Why ????
 3. MATERIALS REQUIRED:
 Lawn chippings, plant residue, kitchen wastes, etc.
 Wood ash/urine ( to remove acidity)
 Old compost/animal dung (to introduce bacteria of decomposition).
 Water (to provide a moist environment for decomposition by bacteria, etc).
 4. BUILD-UP:
 For stack method, long grasses are laid along each side of the 4 stakes.
 Both the pit or stack are filled with available materials until 25 cm high.
 Urine or wood ash and ANIMAL DUNG or OLD COMPOST is spread evenly on top
of this layer. Process is REPEATED until the stack/pit is filled.

 LIME and HANDFULLS of SOIL are placed on top of the heap and watered once a
week in the dry season.

 5. TESTING:
 Testers (strong sticks) are pushed into the heap
 After 4-5 days testers are felt with the hand.
 Microorganisms in the heap are active if the testers are hot to feel
 If not hot, the decomposition process has NOT commenced.
 HENCE the whole process of compost preparation has to be started all over.
 6. TURNING AND STORAGE:
 Done to supply air to the compost for the activities of aerobic bacteria and
avoid the undesirable activities of anaerobic bacteria
 Also kills the LARVAE of the housefly.
 If one heap is made, the height should not exceed the dimensions of the
base.
 The heap is then covered/stored to protect it from rain and sunshine.

FUNCTIONS OF COMPOST:
 Humus in compost improves soil aggregate formation. COLLOIDAL materials bind
loose soils and LIGNIN separates clay particles.
 Minimizes erosion by improving soil structure. By binding soil particles, the soil is
prevented from being carried away by water/rain/wind.
 Mineralization: Increased nutrients – increased soil fertility and crop yields.
 Aids in moisture conservation. Colloidal materials absorb and store moisture.
 Has a BUFFERING EFFECT – i.e. Balances acid to base condition of the soil.
 Reduces rapid soil temperature fluctuations – Dark colour absorbs heat during the
day and releases it slowly at night.

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL FACTORS REQUIRED FOR COMPOSTING
 1. THE MATRIX:
 Composting and soil processes occur in a structural matrix (or solid material).
 However, composting matrices are mainly organic with a high density of
available substrate.
 Biological activities in compost alters its won physical environment i.e.
temperature, bulk density, moisture content, etc. are imposed internally whereas
in the soil they are imposed externally.
 2. TEMPERATURE:
 Is an important determinant of activity.
 Elevated/optimal Temperatures influence decomposition rate.
 Microorganisms are inactive below an optimal temperature.
 Decomposition rate is optimal between mid to upper 50 oC.
 Composting activity rates however decrease at temperatures above 60 oC.
 3. HEAT PRODUCTION, TRANSFER AND MANAGEMENT:
 Heat evolved during composting is derived from biological activity.
 Thermogenesis (Heat evolution) and storage leads to high temperatures in composts.
 Excessive heat accumulation results in high temperatures and inhibition of microbial
activity – Hence, the need for TURNING composting.
 Inherently, heat transfer in compost is through radiation, conduction and evaporative
cooling.
 These control the distribution and removal of heat in the compost.
 4. MOISTURE CONTENT OF COMPOST:

 H2O is required for dissolution of substrates and salts and is a determinant of gas
exchange.
 Desired moisture content varies with application.
 a. Mushroom composting (69-74% moisture)
 b. Waste treatment compost (10 % - dry product) for ease of handling,
transport and storage.
 5. OXYGEN SUPPLY AND REDOX POTENTIAL:
 Anaerobic conditions are undesirable for MUSHROOM and WASTE
TREATMENT COMPOSTS.
 Oxygen is needed for compost decomposition.
 Under anaerobic conditions, undesirable metabolites are formed.
 Volatile organic acids e.g. propanic and butanic acids, volatile sulphur
and N2 compounds that are toxic to higher plants are formed.
 Redox potential increases with maturity and is an index of compost
maturity.
 6. AMMONIA PRODUCTION:
 Ammonification (NH4+/NH3) production leads to an increase in pH.
 Free ammonia predominates at pH 9 and above.
 Free ammonia (1) dissolves OM and (2) is toxic to microbial
74
populations. Friday 19 April 2024
 7. SUBTRATE AVAILABILITY AND DENSITY:
 They determine the decomposition per unit volume of materials.
 Bulking the composting material or matrix increases aeration, porosity and heat
transfer.
 Bulking with WOOD CHIPPINGS, STRAW or BARK aids in oxygenation and
temperatue control.
 8. SUBSTRATE COMPOSITION:
 Nutritional composition should be varied as different microbes require different
nutrients.
 Bacteria prefer amino acids AND Fungi prefer carbohydrates.
 In composting, Bacteria utilize organic N2 initially while Fungi utilize carbohydrates
later in the composting process.
 9. TIME:
 Time is needed for composts to mature.
 Composting is a process and a sequence of occurrences through time.
 A knowledge of previous composting history gives an indication of the quality and
period of maturation.
MICROBIOLOGY OF COMPOSTING:
 MICRO ORGANISMS INVOLVED:

 (1) Bacteria, (2) Actinomycetes and (3) Fungi act at various stages of the
decomposition process.
 (1) In SEWAGE Sludge composting, > 40% of volatile solids are decomposed
by BACTERIA at < 60 oC in the 1st 7 days.
 Thermophillic Bacteria in composts are Bacillus, Clostridium and
Pseudomonas.
 Bacteria and Actinomycetes are sensitive to low pH and prefer pH > 7.
 (2) Actinomycetes degrade relatively complex substances. Some are
thermophilic and prefer temperatures between 50 oC and 65 oC.
 They grow under moist but aerobic conditions.
 Thermophilic actinomycetes include Thermoactionomyces, Norcardia,
Pseudonorcadia thermophilia, Microbispora faeni, Streptomyces, etc.
 (3) FUNGI occur in the later stages of compost processing and degrade the
remaining substrate i.e. cellulose and lignin. Examples of fungi are Mycelia
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sterilia, Zygomycetes, Ascomycetes and Basidiomycetes Friday 19 April 2024
COMMUNITY DYNAMICS:
 Bacteria, Actinomycetes and fungi assimilate C and N differently.
 For mixed populations, 5-10 % of substrate C is assimilated by Bacteria,
15-30 % (actinomycetes) and 30-40 % by fungi.

 Microbial population composition changes with time.
 Initially a high MESOPHILIC community dominates and later

THERMOPHILES as temperature increases.
 With decreasing temperature, moderate thermophiles appear and
MESOPHILES reappear.
 There is a continuing flux of different communities as the environmental
conditions of the compost changes due to previous activity.

MICROBIAL INTERACTIONS:
 Microbial interactions occur in composts
 For example:-
 (1) Actinomycetes are unable to act on CORN STALKS but if

PRECEDED by Hamicola, they grow extensively.
 (2) Mixed populations cause greater decomposition than pure
stands/cultures in compost.
 Composted materials suppress pathogens of horticultural and agricultural
crops.
 E.g. in composted Hardwood bark, Trichoderma hamatam and T.
78 Targianum suppress damping off caused by Rhizoctonia. Friday 19 April 2024

PUBLIC HEALTH:
 Composting kills pathogens, especially in sewage sludge composting.
 Pathogens are killed through high temperatures and biological
antagonisms.
 However, (1) Thermoactinomyces vulgaris in composts can cause
ALLERGIC ALVEOLITIS (mushroom workers lung).
 (2) Salmonella sp. can be pathogenic and can grow to hazardous levels
in composts.

SOIL FERTILITY
 Development of the Concept of Soil Fertility
 Increasing global population requires increased food production.
 Hence importance of sound soil fertility practices to meet this.
 Highlights of the development of sound soil fertility practices
 1. SETTLEMENT OF HUMANS and less wandering marked the

beginning of agriculture/crop cultivation.
 2. 2500BC – fertile lands mentioned in the early civilization of
 MESOPOTAMIA between Tigris and Euphrates rivers (IRAQ).
 3. 2000 years latter (500 BC). Herodotus mentioned of very high crop yields
in Mesopotamia.
 4. Theophrastus (372 -287BC).
 Manuring of shallow soils AND rich soils with less manure application.
 Use of animal bedding with high humus value.
 Manures were classified in decreasing value: i.e. Human, Swine, Goat,
Sheep, Cow, Oxen, and horse

 VARRO rated Bird and fowl manure higher than human excreta.
 Theophrastus also recognized that GREEN MANURING enriched the soil.
 5. Virgil (70 – 19 BC)

 Also advocated the ploughing in legumes/residue.

 6. A.D. 60 – 113 (PLINY)
Liming of soils increases crop production but not up to 50 years.
 7. VIRGIL and COMELLA
Tasting of soil (Taste test) to determine acidity/alkalinity of soils.
 8. CATO
Burning of vine prunnings and ploughing in ASH increased soil fertility.
Correlation between soil fertility and good crop growth, darkness of
soil and thickness of corn stem.
 9. PIETO de CRESCENCZI (1230 – 1307)
 Compiled OPUS RURALIUM COMMODORUM – a collection of local
agric. practices.
 He suggested increasing manure application rates for improved soil
fertility and crop yields.

10. PALISSY (1563)
 Ash content of plants represent material removed from the
soil.
11. FRANCIS BACON (1561-1624) and JEAN BAPTISTE
van HELMONT (1577 – 1644)
 Water contained the major plant nutrients.
12. ROBERT BOYLE (1627-1820) added that the salts,
spirits, earth and oil in plants were from H2O.
13. Arthur Young (1741-1820)
 SOIL AMENDMENTS – Charcoal/poultry manure/oyster
shells/gun powder/train oil/sand.
 RESULTS: Some of these increased crop growth but not
others.

14. JUSTUS von LIEBIG (1803-1873) principles:
 1. Carbon in plants is from atmospheric CO2
 2. H2 and O2 come from water.
 3. P is required for seed formation.
 4. Alkaline metals (Ca2+ /Mg2+ are used for
neutralization of acids exuded by plants.
 5. Plants absorb everything indiscriminately and
extract what is not needed from the roots.
 6. INCORRECT Ideas of LIEDIG:-
 1.Acetic acid in excreted by the roots.
 2.NH4+ is the ONLY form of N2 absorbed by
plants and is obtained from manure, soil or
air.
 Other postulations by LIEBIG:
 1. Nutrient content of plants can be used to formulate
fertilizer recommendation.
 2. Plant growth is related to nutrient content of
applied fertilizers.
 16. LIEBIG LAW OF MINIMUM (1862):
 Every field contains a maximum of one or two and a minimum of one
or two nutrients.
 With this maximum be it lime, potash, N2, magnesia or other nutrient,
yields stand in direct relation. It is the factor which governs and
controls yields.
 Should the minimum be lime, yield will remain the same and no greater
even though the amount of potash, magnesia, phosphoric acid, etc. be
increased a hundred fold.

 J. B. LAWES AND J. H. GILBERT did not agree with all the maxims/principles of
Liebig and stated that:-
 Crops require P and K but the composition in plant ash is no measure of the
amounts of P and K required by plants.
 Non-legumes require N and no growth will be obtained regardless of the amount
of P and K.
 The amount of NH3 contributed by the atmosphere is insufficient for plant use.
 18. HELLRIEGEL AND WILFARTH (1886)

 Bacteria in Root nodules assimilate and atmospheric N2 (N2 fixation) pioneers
then converted in a form used by plants.

 19. Bacteria (Bacillus radicicola) isolated by BEIJERINCK is responsible for
N2 fixation.

By the mid 19th and early 20th the understanding of soil fertility
and plant nutrition was substantial.
Early 20th century
Experimental stations established to show the benefits of N.P.K.
application singly or in combination to enhance soil fertility.
Soil testing now addresses soil fertility PROBLEMS by providing
SITE SPECIFIC recommendations.


 DEFINITION OF SOIL FERTILITY
 Capacity of a soil to supply nutrients in adequate amounts and in the right
proportions when required by plants OR
 Ability of a soil to supply adequate amounts and ensure a steady flow of nutrients
to plants throughout the growing season.
 Differentiate between Inherent and Induced Fertility.
 Ideally a fertile soil should ensure:-

(i) Recurrent nutrient supply and
(ii) Continuous crop growth
 However, a good soil deteriorates with time/continuous cropping.
 Especially with:-
Population pressure
Reduced fallow periods and
Extinction of shifting cultivation.
Hence the need for soil fertility maintenance.
 The sustenance of crop production requires a broader concept of
SOIL PRODUCTIVITY that includes:-

Soil nutrients (fertility)
Drainage
Aeration
pH
Moisture
Other physical soil properties e.g. bulk density, etc.
Biotic factors e.g. Absence of pests.
 It is the measure of a soil’s ability to yield crops.

MAINTENANCE OF SOIL FERTILITY
Main processes of replenishing soil fertility:
 Fallowing
 Green manuring
 Cover cropping
 Mulching
 FYM and Composting
 Inorganic fertilizers.

FALLOWING:
 Is a process of reshuffling or recycling of nutrients
 It increases the organic matter content of the soil
 An increase in the humus content of the top soil occurs
WAYS OF ACCUMULATION OF HUMUS ON TOP SOIL:

 Leaf fall, twigs and branches
 Root slough
 Root exudation – sap and other secretions
 Activities of termites and earthworms

PHYSICO-CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF FOREST AND GRASSLANDS
 Fallowing results in a porous soil rich in organic matter
(0 - 5cm soil depth).
PROPERTIES DIFFER FOR FORESTS AND GRASSLANDS:

 Forest vegetation produces greater biomass.
 Activity of earthworms and termites is greater in the forest.
 Termites and earthworms activities are correlated to organic matter
accumulation.
 Bush burning in the Savannah limits the amount of biomass
accumulated and soil is exposed to the effects of rain.

 Under forest conditions, P and Ca accumulates and exchangeable K+
and Mg2+ increases.

 Organic matter and P are low in savannah soils and lower recycling
of nutrients occurs.
 N Fixation is higher in forests.
 Process of nitrification in completed under forest soils.
 All appropriate bacteria nitrite oxidizers (NH4+, NO2-, NO3-) are present
in each stage in forest soils but limiting in the savannah
 Hence low NO3- accumulation in savannah.

GREEN MANURING – (GM)
DEFINITION
 Is the growing of a leguminous crop with the intention of
incorporating it into the soil to enrich it and support plant growth.

 Green manure is adopted to increase soil organic matter.
 It constitutes a BIOLOGICAL BREAK - i.e. destroys the building of
pests and disease.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GREEN MANURES
An effective green manure crop has the following characteristics:
 Leguminous crops - Nitrogen fixing ability
 Fast growing with high biomass and organic matter accumulation
within a short time
 Deep rooted with well-developed tap root
 Good seeder and easily propagated
 Low-growing for ease of ploughing
 Easy to eradicate when not needed
 Free of pests and diseases
 Non-poisonous to livestock
 Have alternative uses

PROCESSES INVOLVED IN GREEN MANURING:
 A green manure is established on the land it is to be applied
 LAND PREPARATION:
 Land preparation occurs at start of rainy season
 Ploughing and harrowing
 Fertilize when required
 SEED RATE:
 Higher seed rate for greater biomass
 Seeding is by drilling or Broadcasting

 Sowing immediately after ploughing is NOT DESIRABLE.
WHY ????
 REASONS:-
 Generation of heat during microbial decomposition
 When ploughed in, NO3- are UNAVAILABLE.
 This period is termed Nitrogen starvation period (NSP)
 During the NSP microbes act on OM and break it down.
 Microbe utilize NO3- to synthesize proteins.
 NO3- is only made available when microbes die.

TIME OF PLOUGHING-IN GREEN MANURE
 At flowering but not at seeding. WHY?
1. N2 is converted into seed formation.
2. Reduction in biomass occurs.
 A tractor and a mould board or disc plough are used to plough in

Green manure crop.
 When tractor is not available, Green manure is cut and buried in
trenches manually.
 Green manuring is widely used in the Temperature Regions than
in the Tropics.

LIMITATIONS OF GREEN MANURING IN THE TROPICS:
 Three main limitations: climatic, socioeconomic and geo- location.

1. Climatic
 Favorable in areas where the rainy season is long enough for the
growth of the green manure and the arable crop
 Quality of green manure deteriorates in the dry season
2. Socioeconomic
 Problem of machinery under poor socioeconomic conditions
 Extra cost involved in green manuring
 Yields should be high enough to meet extra expenses
 Loss of production and waste of land (farmers perception)
3. Geographic location
 Higher temperatures, seasonal fluctuations in soil moisture and
lower organic matter levels in the tropics vrs. temparates regions
COVER CROPPING (CC)
 A cover crop is a low growing crop established to give protective

covering to the soil.
 Common in widely spaced crops e.g. Coffee, Rubber and other tree
crops.
 Most sp. used as cover crops are leguminous because:
 1. They fix N2
 2. Quick ground cover
 Perennial and annual species can be used as cover crops.
 Perennials preferred. WHY??
 REASON: Quick ground cover and persistence.

FUNCTIONS OF COVER CROPS (CC):
 Release of nutrients in the top soil through nutrient recycling from
plant litter
 Legume CC increase soil N2 through N2 fixation
 Prevention of erosion by reducing impact of rain and surface
runoff
 Smothering of weeds as in tree plantations
 Reduction of soil temperature by shading the soil

DESIRABLE CHARACTERISTICS OF COVER CROPS
 Preferably a leguminous sp.

 Low growing
 Quick growing but not so vigorously to excessively compete with
the commercial crop
 Not liable to diseases and pests
 Established by seed and produce seed easily
 Cover crops should be shade tolerant
 Good mulch producer and able to shed its leaves to form litter

MULCHING
 DEFINITION = Process of covering/sealing off the surface of the

soil with a protective covering which may serve one or more
objectives, that include:
OBJECTIVES OF MULCHING
Addition of organic matter
Prevention of erosion
Regulation of soil temperature
Suppression of weeds
Conservation of moisture

 ADDITION OF ORGANIC MATTER
 Activities of soil micro-fauna - As mulch decomposes it releases
nutrients and is a source of organic matter
 K and P are released from mulch
 Elephant grass recommended for use as mulch. WHY???
 Prevention of N2 deficiency through its lower C:N ratio
 Other mulches have low N and high C.
 PREVENTION OF EROSION
 Insulating soil from wind and rain
 Prevents crust formation and slows percolation of H2O and reduce
surface runoff.
 Without mulch, nutrients would be lost.

 REGULATION OF TEMPERATURE
 Reduces diurnal temperature fluctuations
 Valuable in nurseries to aid germination
 CONSERVATION OF MOISTURE
 Improves penetration of water by reducing surface run-off
 Reduces direct evaporation of soil H2O and indirectly reduces
evapo-transpiration of crops and weeds.
 Improves soil structure through the activities of microbes habiting
the micro-environment/climate created.
 Hence it increases the water retention capacity of the soil.

 SUPPRESSION OF WEEDS
 Smother weeds by preventing photosynthesis
 Reduces capacity of weeds to synthesize frucuse-6-phosphate,
starch, carbohydrates and polysaccharides such as cellulose and
hemi-cellulose.
 NOTE:
 Use straw that has not produced seed as mulch
 Cut perennial weeds before applying mulch
 READING ASSIGNMENT
 Which materials are used as mulch and how can these enhance soil
fertility?
FARM YARD MANURE (FYM)
 FYM is composed of a mixture of dung, urine, litter and animal
feed waste.
 Arable crop by-products and livestock excreta constitute FYM.
 FYM supplies micro-and macro-nutrients.
 FYM varies depending on origin and mode of storage
 Poultry manure is the most concentrated and richest form of FYM.
 A hen produces an average of 15 kg manure/yr that contains 0.25
kg N, 0.2 kg P and 0.1 kg K and minor amounts of Ca and Mg.

 FYM application results in nutrient supply to the soil over a long
period of time.
 Nutrient release rate from FYM is 2 - 4 % per yr.
 Components of FYM are converted into humus that has lasting
effects year after year.
 The physical properties of soils (ie. texture, infiltration of water,
structure, nutrient retention, etc.) are improved with FYM
application.
 Nutrients are hence protected from leaching with FYM application
unlike chemical/inorganic fertilizers.
 Availability of nutrients of FYM is assessed by nutrient uptake
analysis.
 COMPOSTING (RECALL)

CROP ROTATION
 Recall from students
 Assignment:
 Explain how crop rotational systems can be used to enhance soil
fertility.

CHEMICAL FERTILIZERS
 DEFINITION OF FERTILIZER:
 Any substance, natural or manufactured that is added to the soil
to supply essential plant nutrients – plant growth – increased crop
yields.
 A Fertilizer may be organic or inorganic.
 Inorganic fertilizer = chemical fertilizers.
 Eg. of Inorganic = NH4NO3.
 Organic fertilizer = Farm Yard Manure, Green Manure, Compost,
etc.
 Commercial fertilizer = Any substance purchased to be applied to
the soil so as to promote crop development.
 There are sixteen elements essential Elements.
 (To be treated under topic, MINERAL NUTRITION)
 Three (3) of these elements, N, P and K are commonly applied in
commercial fertilizers.
 PRIMARY FERTILIZER ELEMENTS

 Primary fertilizer elements are used in the formulation of straight
fertilizers
 Fertilizers are classified into three major groups based on the
materials they supply i.e. Inorganic N fertilizer, (N) Inorganic
Phosphatic fertilizers (P), and Inorganic Potassium fertilizers (K).
 Secondary fertilizer elements = Ca, Mg and S.

INORGANIC NITROGEN FERTILIZERS:
 Many inorganic fertilizers supply N in mixed fertilizers.
 N contents range from 3 % (ammoniated superphosphate) to 82 %
(anhydrous NH3).
 NH4+ and NO3- compounds also supply N2
 All N fertilizer are synthesized with N2 (gas)
 Most important first step synthetic process of N fertilizer production
is NH3 gas formation from H2 and N2
 i.e. N2 + 3H2 2NH3. The reaction yields a compound

that is the least expensive per unit of N.
 The NH3 formed is utilized in 3 ways:
 1. Liquified under pressure (anhydrous ammonia) can be
used to form ammoniated superphosphate or
applied directly.
 2. NH3 is dissolved in H2O to form NH4OH (ammonia liquor).
 3. Manufacture of N fertilizer materials.
 Egs:-
 NH3 + HNO3 NH4 NO3 (Ammonium nitrate)
 2NH3 + H2SO4 (NH4)2 SO4 (Ammonium sulphate)
 NH3 + H3PO4 NH4 H2 PO4 (Ammonium phosphate)
 2NH3 + CO2 CO(NH2)2 + H2O (Urea)
 NH3 + H2O NH4 OH (Ammonium hydroxide)
 2NH3 + H3PO4 (NH4)2HPO4 (Di-ammonium phosphate)
 Examples of Inorganic N Fertilizers:-
FERTILIZER CHEMICAL FORM %N
Sodium Nitrate NaNO3 16
Ammonia Sulphate(NH4)2SO4 21
Ammonium Nitrate NH4NO3 33-34.5
Urea CO(NH2)2 45-46
Anhydrous Ammonia NH3 (l) 82
Ammoniuim phosphate NH4H2PO4 11(48 % P2O5)
115
Diammonium phosphate (NH4)2 HPO4 21(53
Friday 19 April 2024
PHOSPHATIC FERTILIZER (PF)
 Superphosphate is the principal phosphatic fertilizer.

 Ordinary grade (SSP) = 16-21% P2O5 (7% - 9% P).
 High analysis (TSP) = 40-47% P2O5 (17-21% P).
 Note conversion factor:
 P=P2O5 x 0.4364
 P2O5=P x 2.2914
 SSP is manufactured by treating raw rock PO42- with H2SO4.
 i.e.
 Ca3(PO4)2 + 2H2SO4 Ca(H2PO4)2 + 2CaSO4
Insoluble (water soluble + impurities)

 SECONDARY PHOSPHATE (CaHPO4) (16-24% P2O5):
 Is manufactured by treating RAW rock PO42- with a limited amount
of H2SO4. i.e.
 Ca3(PO4)2 + H2SO4 2CaHPO4 + CaSO4 + Impurities
(Citrate soluble phosphoric acid)

 Triple or Treble super phosphate is synthesized by treating Rock
phospate with phosphoric acid i.e.
 Ca3(PO4)2 + 4H3PO4 3Ca(H2PO4)2 + Impurities

Phosphorus Fertilizers:
Fertilizer Chemical Formula Available P2O5 P (%)
Super Ca(H2PO4)2 16 -50 7 - 12
phosphate Ca HPO4
Ammonium NH4H2PO4 48 (11 % N) 21
phosphate
Basic slag (CaO) 5P2O5SiO2 15 -25 7 - 11

Rock Flour- & Chlor- apatite 25 - 30 11 - 13
phosphate [3Ca3(PO4)2.CaF2] or
[3Ca3(PO4)2.CaCl2]
Steamed (Ca3PO4)2 62 -63 27 - 28

bone meal

 At low soil pH, super PO42- reduces acidity and
 At pH 7.5 – 8.5, it increases acidity.
 Reason = Ca2+ ions of Ca(H2PO4)2 displaces/neutralizes H+
or donates H+
 BASIC SLAG = (CaO)5 P2O5 Si O2)
 Is a desirable phosphatic fertilizer because of:
 Its alkalinity (Ca ions supply)

 Ready availability of phosphoric acid
 Effective on arid soils.
 BONE MEAL
 It is slowly available
 An inexpensive form of phosphoric acid
 However, excessive amount of bone meal have to detrimental
effects on crop growth (Overliming).
 ROCK PHOSPHATE
 Low solubility (least soluble PO4) should be finely ground if it is to
react at all when applied to the soil.
 Solubility of Rock phosphate is increased with increasing
decaying OM or acidulation.
 Order of solubility of PO42- : NH4PO4 > super PO42- > Basic slag >
Bone meal > Raw rock PO42-

POTASSIUM FERTILIZERS
 Primarily obtained by mining underground salt belts.
 Brine (KCl) from salt lakes is also a main source of K.
 All potash fertilizers are water-soluble and therefore readily available.
 Generally potash fertilizers have little or no effect on soil pH.
 K – Mg – SO42- (Potassium Mg sulphate) although low in K is a good
source of Mg for Mg-deficient soils.
 NOTE:
 Conversional factors:
 K =K2O x 0.8302
K2O=K x 1.2046
 Sample Question:
 Determine the percentage of K2O in Sulphate of potash with an
elemental K percentage of 37 %.
 Given Data:
% Elemental K in Sulphate of potash (K 2SO4) = 37 %
Atomic mass of O = 15.999
Atomic mass of K = 39.098
Ratio of mass of K2O to K = K2O / K
i.e. K2O = ( 39.098 × 2) + (16 × 1)
K2 39.098 × 2
 = 94.196
78.196
= 1.2046
`Converting into % K2O = % K × 1.2046
 = 37 % × 1.2046
 = 44.548 %
POTASH FERTILIZER MATERIALS
Fertilizer Formula K2O %K
Potassium Chloride KCl 48-60 40-50
Sulphate of potash Double salt of 25-30 19-25

magnesia K and Mg
Potassium Sulphate K2SO4 48-50 40-42
123 Potassium Nitrate KNO3 44(13%N) 37

Friday 19 April 2024
TERMINOLOGIES OF THE FERTILIZER INDUSTRY
 Fertilizer elements
 Are those nutrient elements that are demanded in plant nutrition
and used for fertilizer formulation.
 N,P,K are primary elements
 Ca, Mg, S are secondary elements.
 Micro-nutrients such as Zn, B, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo have now been
added/included in fertilizer formulations.
 Why?? To address micro-nutrient deficiencies.
 Straight/single or simple fertilizer

 Supply only ONE primary element. Eg. MOP/SSP/TSP/Urea.

 Mixed /compound fertilizer – Contains > one primary element.
 Incomplete fertilizers – contain only 2 primary elements.
 E.g. 20 – 20 – 0 (N.P.K)
 Complete fertilizer – contains all 3 primary elements eg.
 The term Primary element preferred to fertilizer elements for
definitions involving N.P.K. fertilizers
 Fertilizer Grade:
 Indicates the percentage of plant nutrients in a fertilizer. E.g. NPK
23-15-5 fertilizer grade has 23 % of N, 15 % P2O5 and 5 % K2O.
 100kg bag has 23kg N, 15kg P2O5 and 5kg K2O.
 Deduce for a 50kg bag?????

CARRIER
Any material that contains (carries) one or more fertilizer
elements.
Eg. (NH4)2SO4 is a carrier supplying N and S; (NH4)2PO4
supplies N and P.
ACTIVE INGREDIENT
Refers to the Primary Nutrient (N) and oxidated forms of P
(P2O5) and K(K2O) in the straight fertilizers carrying them.
Active ingredients also refer to oxidized forms of secondary
elements Mg (MgO) and Ca (CaO).
Both the elemental forms and oxides forms are therefore being
used in fertilizer calculations.
Hence need for conversions.
 FERTILIZER ANALYSIS (OR FERTILIZER GUARANTEE)
 Indicates the proportion of plant nutrients a fertilizer contains.
 The analysis of a straight fertilizer is the percentage of a.i. it supplies.
Eg. Urea has a fertilizer analysis of 46 %.
 For compound fertilizer, it is the sum of the percentages of the a.i. it
contains. E.g. N. P. K. 15-15-15 = 45 % fertilizer analysis.
 Fertilizer guaranteed to supply:
<15 % total a.i. = low in analysis
15-25 % = medium analysis fertilizer.
26-30 % = high analysis fertilizer.
> 30 % = concentrated.
 FERTILIZER RATE
 Quantity of fertilizer to be applied per unit area of land for a given crop
eg. 300 kg N.P.K 15-15-15 per hectare.
ADVANTAGES OF COMPOUND FERTILIZERS
 Less labour is used than when applying each component
separately.
 Mixtures are usually granulated - Therefore they are:
 (1) Free from small dust-like particles.
 (2) Less easily carried by wind.
 (3) Reduce reaction rate with soil and nutrient release delayed
compared to straight fertilizers.

 Possible to correct acidity e.g. by addition of limestone.
 Incorporation of micro-nutrients.

DISADVANTAGES OF COMPOUND FERTILIZERS
 Does not allow for the use of individual nutrients that may be
deficient in the soil.

 Unit cost of nutrients is higher.
 Total concentration of a specific nutrient is much less due to the
addition of the filler.

 Assessment of the performance of individual nutrients is not as
effective as when applied as straight fertilizer.

MATERIALS USED IN PRODUCING COMPOUND FERTILIZERS
 Suppliers of nutrients:- These are the straight fertilizers added
to supply plant nutrients of a fertilizer grade (ie. the carrier).
 Conditioners:- Added to reduce caking and deterioration of
fertilizers.
 E.g. Peat/paddy husk/crushed tobacco stems.
 Neutralizers of residual acidity:- To neutralize acidity, liming
materials may be added. Mixed fertilizers are generally neutral.
 Filler:- Added to make up for the difference between the weight
of the added fertilizer nutrients and desired quantity of fertilizer
mixture.

METHODS OF FERTILIZER APPLICATION:-
READING ASSIGNMENT
 Hill placement
 Band
 Ring
 Broadcasting
 Foliar application
 OTHER TERMINOLOGIES:
 Basal application
 Top dressing
 Fertigation

READING ASSIGNMENT
 1. Why should urea be buried in the soil during application?
 2. Why does the application of sulphate of ammonia increase
soil acidity?
 1. CO(NH2)2 + 2H2O (NH4)2CO3
(NH4)2CO3 H2O + CO2 + 2NH3
 2. 2NH4+ + 3O2 2NO 2- + 2H2O + 4H+
2NO2- + O2 2NO 3-

FERTILIZER CALCULATIONS
 NUTRIENT CONTENT OF N.P.K.15-15-15 (50Kg)
 100 kg of NPK 15-15-15 contains 15kg N, 15kg P2O5 and 15 kg K2O.
 Amount of N in 1 bag of Fertilizer = 15 x 50 kg = 7.5 kg N
100
 Amount of P2O5 = 15 x 50 = 7.5 kg P2O5
100
 Amount of K2O = 15 x 50 = 7.5 kg K2O
• 100
 If 2 bags → acre
  5 bags → ha.
Amount of N, P2O5 and K2O applied/ha :
 N: 50 kg NPK = 7.5 kg N.
  250 kg NPK = 250/50 x 7.5 kg N = 37.5 kg N.
 K2O: ?????
 P2O5: ?????

NUTRIENT CONTENT OF (NH4)2SO4 (50Kg)
 For (NH4)2SO4 :
 50kg bag contains 21 % N
  Amount of N = 21 x 50
100
= 10.5kg N.
  At 1 bag/acre OR 2.5 bags/ha.
 Nutrient content (N) applied/ha
= 50 kg (NH4)2 SO4 = 10.5 kg N
  125 kg (NH4)2 SO4 = 125/50 x 10.5 kg N/ha
 = 26.25 kg N/ha

 BASIC EQUATIONS FOR FERTILIZER CALCULATIONS
 The analysis or grade of a fertilizer is found by determining the
percentage of each nutrient ie.

 % Nutrient = Nutrient Content × 100
Total quantity of fertilizer
 Nutrient Content = [% nutrient × Total quantity of fertilizer ]
100
 Total quantity of fertilizer = Nutrient Content × 100
 % Nutrient

Fertilizer formulation
Problem 1:
 Find out the quantities of the individual fertilizers and a filler needed
to make up a ton of 4-8-12 fertilizer mixture, using nitrogen from

nitrate of soda (16 % N) and ammonium sulphate (20 % N) in equal
quantities; super phosphate (16 % P2O5) and muriate of potash (60
% K2 O).

Solution
N=4 R(NOS) = 2 R(AS) = 2
 Amount of NaNO3 = 2 x 1000 = 125 kg

16
 Amount of (NH4)2SO4 = 2 X 1000 = 100 kg
20
 Amount of SSP = 8 x 1000 = 500 kg
16
 Amount of MOP = 12 x 1000 = 200 kg
60
 Total Fertilizer = (125 + 100 + 500 + 200) kg = 925 kg
 Amount of filler = (1000 – 925) kg = 75 kg

Problem 2:
 Prepare 1 tone of 4-7-12 fertilizer mixture in which half the nitrogen
is supplied as ammonium sulphate (20 % N) and the other half

divided between nitrate of soda (16 % N) and groundnut cake (6 %
N, 6 % P2O5). Phosphate and potash are to be added in the form of
super phosphate (16 % P2O5) and muriate of potash (60 % K2 O),

respectively.

Solution
 Amount of (NH)2SO4 = 2 X 1000= 100 kg
20
 Amount of NaNO3 = 1 x 1000 = 62.5 kg
16
 Amount of g’nut cake = 1 x 1000 = 166.6 kg
6
 Amount of SSP = 7 x 1000 = 437.5 kg
16
 Amount of MOP = 12 x 1000 = 200 kg
60
 Total fertilizer = 966.6 kg
 Amount of filler = 1000 – 966.6 = 33.4kg
FIELD AND POT EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUES
 FIELD TECHNIQUES
 Soil Sampling:
 Adequate sampling procedure
 Before
 During
 After Experiment
 Reasons for sampling at different times:
 Site Selection:
 Uniformity of the experimental field
 Avoid outcrops of land
 Note differences in fertilization
 Avoid shady areas (eg. trees).

 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
 Randomized complete Block Design (RCBD)
 Split plot
 Latin square
 Factorial Experiments – Interaction effects e.g. Fertilizer, seed
variety.
 ANALYSIS
 Analysis of variance (ANOVA)
 Separation of means – Lsd, DMRT
 Tukey’s W-test, orthogonal comparisms or contrast
 LEVEL OF SIGNIFICANCE
 Usually at 1 % (P < 0.01) and at 5 % (P < 0.05).
POT TECHNIQUES
 Soil sampling and compositing of soil.
 Adequate soil sampling –
 Area = usually (1ha or ½ ha).
 Quantity of soil in pots = 2 – 5 kg.
 Soil Aeration in pots.

Fertilizer Application Rates:
 Use of mass of 1ha of soil = 3,000,000kg
 If B = 1.5g cm-3 (1500kg m-3) and 20cm (0.2m) soil depth is used:
i.e.
 Volume of soil = depth x area
= 20/100 m x 10,000m2 = 2,000 m3.
 B = 1.5 g cm-3 (1500kg m-3); M = B.V (from P = m/v)
 Mass of 1ha of soil = 2,000 m3 x 1,500kg/m3
= 3,000,000kg.
 Different mass of 1ha if plough depth = 15cm
 Now note application rate of fertilizer and mass of soil in pot and c
alculate the amount of fertilizer to be applied per pot.

SAMPLE QUESTION
In a potted maize crop experiment with four replications,
N.P.K. 15.15.15 is to be applied at the rates of 80 kg ha-1,
240 kg ha-1 and 320 kg ha-1, in addition to the control. Each
pot contains 5 kg of soil. Calculate the total quantity of
fertilizer needed for this experiment (Assume the furrow
slice/plough depth is 20 cm and the bulk density of the soil is
1.5 g cm-3).

 YIELD
 Usually on per pot or per plant Basis.
 But could be calculated on per ha basis if the appropriate spacing
between plants is used.

 EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
 Usually CRD.
 But could be (RCBD) e.g. if there are different soils that could
contaminate each other.

 Analysis of variance/separation of means and level of significance
are same as that of the field experiments.

METHODS OF SOIL FERTILITY EVALUATION
ASSESSMENT
 To determine the soil fertility of an area, the following methods
are used:-
 Visual diagnosis
 Plant Analysis
 Soil Testing
 Field Experimentation
 Biological Tests.

VISUAL DIAGNOSIS
 Plants exhibit characteristic symptoms due to deficiency of essential nutrients
required for normal growth & development.
 These symptoms are used to diagnose deficiency of soil nutrients.
Advantages:
 Rapid results are obtained instantaneously.
 No elaborate apparatus or equipment is required.
 Inexpensive.
Disadvantages:
 Time-limitation: When symptoms develop and are observed in plants, the
damage would have been caused.
 Deficiency symptoms of some nutrients are similar e.g. Mg and N both cause
chlorosis of leaves.
 Deficiency symptoms may be complicated by pests, diseases, poor weather,
152
etc. Friday 19 April 2024
PLANT ANALYSIS
 Nutrient uptake is a good indicator of soil nutrient availability.
 It involves a determination of levels of nutrients in plant tissue.
 Plant tissue analysis is important and necessary for

identifying plant nutrient problems.
 However, the following precautions should be taken:
 The correct plant part should be sampled.
 Stage of growth – Nutrient level decreases as plant matures.
 Nutrient Interrelationships:
- The level of one nutrient may be affected by another.
- The ratio of one nutrient to another may be more
appropriate as a guide to nutrient sufficiency as a . e.g.
Mg/K, S/N or Fe/Mn.
Advantages:
 More rapid compared to field experimentation.
 More appropriate for identifying long-term problems. e.g.
perennial plants (Tree crops).
Disadvantages:
 Requires sophisticated apparatus and complicated laboratory
procedures.
 Time-limitation – Growth is seriously adversely affected before
annual crops remedied.

 Relatively Expensive.
SOIL TESTING
 In general soil tests attempt to extract from the soil amounts of
essential elements and these are correlated with the nutrients taken
up by plants. The soil testing process consists of three critical
activities, namely:-
 Soil sampling
 Soil chemical analysis
 Interpretation of the analytical results to make
recommendations on the kind and amount of nutrients
to apply.
Advantages
 It is a better method of assessing soil fertility because it helps in
determining the nutrient needs of the plant before the crop is planted.
 It is simpler and less time consuming than Field Experimentation
methods.
Disadvantages
 It requires sophisticated apparatus and complicated laboratory
procedure.
 Results may be rendered unreliable by errors in soil sampling.

FIELD EXPERIMENTATION
 This involves conducting field trials to determine the fertility status
and develop recommendations for the optimum amount of

fertilizer or manure to be used on a particular land for a specific
crop.
Advantages
 It is the most reliable and satisfactory method for developing
recommendations for fertilizer use.

 Combination effects or interactions between nutrients can be
identified and factored into developing fertilizer recommendations

Disadvantages
 It is very costly and not affordable to the average farmer
 It is time consuming and usually takes many years of trials before
reliable results are obtained.

 It requires sophisticated apparatus and complicated laboratory
procedure.

BIOLOGICAL TESTS
 Are based on the principle that the general mineral requirements
of microorganisms and certain crop plants are similar.
 It involves testing the concentration of nutrient elements in soil
micro-organisms.
Advantages:-
 Rapid as a test and can performed within 3 – 4 days.
 Not as costly as field trials.
Disadvantages:-
 Validity of this method is still questionable and interpretation is not
widely acceptable.

MOVEMENT OF IONS FROM SOIL TO ROOTS
 There are three ways by which nutrient ions reach plant roots.
(1) Root interception
(2) Mass flow of ions
(3) Diffusion of ions

ROOT INTERCEPTION
 As roots develop and exploit more soil, soil solution and soil surfaces
retaining adsorbed ions are exposed to the root mass, and

absorption of these ions occur by contact exchange mechanisms.
 Ions attached to root hair surfaces (such as H+ ions) may exchange
with ions held on clay surfaces and OM in soils because of the

contact that exists between roots and soil particles.

 The ions are held by electrostatic forces at these sites and
oscillate within a given volume.
K+ H+
Clay Root
Oscillating volume
 When the oscillation volumes of the two ions overlap, the ions
exchange places.
 In this way, Ca2+ or K+ on a clay surface could be absorbed by the
roots and utilized by plants.
 Root interception of nutrients is enhanced by the growth of new roots
and by mycorrhizal infections.

 Mycorrhiza is a symbiotic association between a fungus and plant roots.
 The extent of mycorrhizal infection is enhanced by:
 Slightly acidic soil pH
 Low levels of P
 Adequate N
 Low soil temperatures.
 Hypha thread of mycorrhiza  extension of roots  more soil
exploitation.
 There are two major groups of mycorrhizas.
 Ectomycorrhizas and Endomycorrhizas.
 Ectomycorrhizas – occurs in tree species of the temperature zone
(eg. Pines/English Oaks) and in semiarid zones.

 Endomycorrhizas (1) more wide spread (Tropics) (2) Roots of
most agronomic crops have vesicular arbuscular mycorrhiza

(VAM) eg. Maize in the tropics.
 Ectomycorrhizas:
 The hyphae penetrate the roots of plants and develop in the free
space around the cells of the cortex but do not penetrate the
164
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 Endomycorrhizas:
 There are two types of endomycorrhizas: (1) VAM (2) AM

 The hyphae of the fungi penetrates the cortical cells of the roots.
 In the roots they form highly branched structures called
ARBUSCULES.
 The arbuscules transfer mineral nutrients from the fungi to the host
plant roots and sugars through plant roots to the fungi.

 Vesicles serve as storage structures/organs for the fungi.
 Fungi with no vesicles are termed AM.

 Increased nutrient absorption is due to the higher surface area provided
by fungi.
 Infected roots have up to 10 times nutrient absorption capacity than
uninfected roots.
 Fungi roots extend up to 8 cm into the soil surrounding the roots and
ensures the uptake of P that cannot diffuse readily to the roots.

 Enhanced P uptake is reason for improved plant growth in mycorrhizal
plants.
 The increased growth leads to a more rapid uptake of other nutrients.

MASS FLOW
 Movement of ions in soil solution to plant roots by mass flow is an
important factor in supplying nutrients to plants.

 Mass flow (MF) occurs when plant nutrient ions and other dissolved
substances are transported in the flow of H2O to the roots as a result of
the transpirational H2O uptake by the plant.
 Mass flow also occurs in response to evaporation and percolation of soil
water.
 The amount of nutrients reaching the plants by mass flow are determined
by: (1) rate of H2O flow or consumption of plants (2)

nutrient concentration in soil water.
 Mass flow supplies Ca2+, Mg2+ and mobile nutrients (eg. SO42- and
NO3-) to plants in most soils.
 As moisture is reduced (increased moisture tension), water movement
slows down.
 Therefore, the movement of nutrient ions by MF to the root surface is
slowed.
 The movement of H2O by MF is reduced at low temperatures.
 Reasons: (1) The transpirational demands of plants is less at low
temperature than at warmer conditions.

 (2) The transport of ions in water flow that is evaporated at the soil
surface decreases at low temperature.

DIFFUSION
 Diffusion occurs when ions move from a region of high concentration to
one of low concentration. Most of the P and K move to roots by diffusion.

 As plant roots absorb nutrients from the surrounding soil solution, the
nutrient concentration at the root surface decreases compared to the

BULK SOLUTION concentration.
 Therefore a nutrient concentration gradient is established that causes
ions to diffuse towards the plant root.

 A high plant requirement for a nutrient results in a large concentration
gradient; therefore favouring a high rate of diffusion from the soil solution
to the roots.
 The magnitude of the diffusion gradient is the main factor influencing
nutrient diffusion in soils.

 The following equation (known as Ficks Law) describes this
relationship i.e. (the rate of diffusion and conc. gradient ).
dc = De. A. dc
dt dx
 Where, dc/dt = Rate of Diffusion (change in conc. with time).
 dc/dx = Concentration gradient (change in conc. with distance).
 De = Effective diffusion coefficient.
 A = Cross sectional area through which ions diffuse.

 The diffusion equation shows that the rate of nutrient diffusion (dc/dt) is
directly proportional to the concentration gradient (dc/dx).
 As the difference in nutrient concentration between the root surface
and the bulk solution increases, the rate of nutrient diffusion

increases.
 The diffusion rate is also proportional to diffusion coefficient, De. ie.
(dc/dt α De).
 The De, controls how far nutrients can diffuse to the root.
 De determines the fraction of nutrients in the soil that can reach the
roots during a specific period of plant growth.

 De is described as follows:-
De = Dw θ (1/T) (1/b)
 Where Dw = Diffusion coefficient in H2O
 De = effective diffusion coefficient
θ = Volumetric soil H2O content
T = Tortuosity factor
b = Soil BC (Buffering Capacity).

 This relationship shows that as θ increases, De increases;
 This results in an increase in diffusion rate (dc/dt) (Recall).

 As the moisture content of the soil decreases, the moisture films
around soil particles become thinner and the diffusion of ions

through these films becomes more tortuous.
 Transport of nutrients to the root surface is most effective at field
capacity.
 Therefore increasing θ (volumetric soil water content) reduces
tortuosity (T = diffusion path length), which leads to increased

(dc/dt).
 Tortosity is related soil texture.

 Nutrients diffusing fine-textured soils have a more tortuous path to
the root surface than sandy soils (eg. H2O movement in two
capillary tubes with sandy and clayey soils).
 As T increases with increasing clay content, 1/T decreases and
hence dc/dt [from De = Dw θ (1/T)(1/b)].
  De  dc
/dt [Recall Fick’s Law].
 Also ions diffusing through soil moisture in clay soils are more
attracted to adsorption sites than in sandy soils.

 De in soils is related directly to Dw for the same nutrient.

BUFFERING CAPACITY (BC), b:
 Increasing BC of the soil, es De and es dc/dt (the De is inversely
related to soil BC, b).

 Therefore decreasing BC, by increasing the nutrient concentration
in soil solution increases dc/dt .
 Increasing soil solution concentration also increases the diffusion
gradient, dc/dx.
 Hence increased dc/dt (Rate of diffusion).

 Roots do not absorb all nutrients at the same rate.
 Therefore certain ions may build up during periods of rapid
absorption of water.
 Nutrient movement/diffusion away from the root is much less than
towards the root.

 This results in BACK DIFUSSION in which the concentration
gradient and hence the movement of certain ions will be away from
the root surface and back towards the soil solution.

 Soil solution concentration of ions are influenced by the colloidal
fraction of the soil and degree to which these ions are saturated
with cations.
 E.g. The ease of replacement of Ca from soil colloids by plant
uptake varies in the order:
peat > kaolinte > illite > montmorillonite.
 An 80 % Ca-saturated 2:1 clay provides the same percentage
Ca2+ release as a 35 % Ca-saturated kaolinite or a 25 % Ca-
saturated peat.
 Therefore the importance of mass flow and diffusion in supplying
ions to the root surface depends on the ability of the solid phase
of the soil to supply the liquid phase with these ions.

MECHANISMS OF NUTRIENT UPTAKE
 ION ABSORPTION BY PLANTS
 Plant uptake of ions from soil solution is by PASSIVE and ACTIVE
PROCESSES.
 Ions passively move to a boundary through which these are
actively transported to organs in plant cells that metabolise the

nutrient ions.
 Soil solution composition or ion concentrations outside and inside
the boundary are controlled by different processes.

PASSIVE ION UPTAKE
 Passive absorption of ions occurs in a large fraction of the total

root volume.
 The OUTER OR APPARENT FREE SPACE is the site for the
diffusion and exchange of ions.
 It is located in the walls of the epidermal and cortical cells of the
root and in the film of moisture linning the intercellular spaces.
 The walls of the cells of the cortex are the main location of the
outer free space.
 This extracellular space is outside the outermost membrane
called the CASPARIAN STRIP.

 The casparian strip is the barrier to the diffusion and exchange of
ions.
 Ions in soil solution enter the roots tissue through diffusion and
ion exchange processes.
 The concentration of ions in the apparent free space is normally
less than the bulk solution concentration.
 Therefore diffusion occurs with a concentration gradient from high
to low concentration.
 The interior surfaces of the cells of the cortex are negatively
charged and attract cations.
 Cation exchange readily occurs along the extra-cellular surfaces
and explains why cation exchange exceeds onion exchange.

 To maintain electrical neutrality, the root cells release H+ to
decrease soil solution pH near the root surface.
 Diffusion and ion exchange are passive processes because
uptake into the outer space is controlled by ion concentration
gradient (diffusion) and electrical gradient (ion exchange).
 These processes are non-selective and do not require energy
produced from metabolic activities within the cell.
 Passive uptake occurs outside the CASPARIAN STRIP and
PLASMALEMMA, which are the boundary membranes or barriers
to diffusion and ion exchange.
 Diffusion and exchange of ions also occurs in the extracellular
spaces of the mesophyll cells of the leaves.

 Nutrient ions reach the OUTER SPACE of leaves through the
xylem from the roots.
 Mineral ions in rain and foliar applications reach penetrate the
leaves through the stomata and cuticle to reach the interior of

leaves where they are available for absorption by mesophyll cells.
 The movement of ions from the roots to shoots is determined by
water absorption and transpiration, implying that MASS FLOW is

important in the movement of ions.

ACTIVE ION UPTAKE
 The plasmalemma membrane is the boundary between the
apparent free space and the interior contents of the cell.
 Ions that are passively absorbed occupy spaces between cells.
 The plasmalemma then prevents passive transport of nutrients

into the cell.
 Since ion concentrations are greater inside than outside the cell,
transport of ions across the plasmalemma is against an
electrochemical gradient.
 Therefore ENERGY is required to transport ions across the
plasmalemma into the CYTOPLASM.

 The ENERGY is derived from cell metabolism.
 The ION-CARRIER mechanism involves a metabolically produced

substance that combines with free IONS.
 The ION-CARRIER complex can then cross impermeable
membranes/barriers through which free ions cannot pass.
 After transfer, the ion-carrier complex is broken, and the ion is
released into the inner space of the cell.
 Two different mechanisms are involved in the transport of ions into the
inner space:
 1st mechanism: occurs at low ion concentrations ≤ 1 mM.
 2nd mechanism: occurs at high ion concentrations > 1 mM.

 Active ion transport is a selective process and specific ions are
transported across the plasmalemma by specific carrier

mechanisms.
 K, Rb and Cs compete for the same carriers but do not compete
with the elements Ca, Sr and Ba.

 However, Ca, Sr, and Ba compete among each other for the same
carrier.
 Se competes with SO42- but NOT with PO42-.
 H PO42- and H2 PO4- have different carriers and do not compete
with one another for entry into inner space.

ESSENTIALITY OF ELEMENTS IN PLANT NUTRITION
 A mineral element is one that is essential to plant growth and
development if the element is involved in the metabolic functions and

the plant cannot complete its life cycle without the element.
 Plants exhibit visual symptoms indicating the deficiency of a specific
nutrient.
 Visual symptoms in plants may also be caused by often factors such
as moisture stress, pests and diseases.

 Hence caution must be taken when diagnosing deficiency symptoms.

TERMS USED TO DESCRIBE NUTRIENT LEVELS IN PLANTS
 DEFICIENT: When the concentration of an essential element is
low enough to limit yield severely and deficiency symptoms are
visible.
 With moderate/slight deficiencies, symptoms may not be visible
BUT yield will be reduced.
 CRITICAL RANGE: Nutrient concentration in the plant
below which a yield response to added nutrients occurs.
 Critical levels vary among plants and nutrients BUT occur
between deficiency and sufficiency.
 SUFFICIENT: Nutrient concentration range in which added
nutrient will not increase yield but increase concentration of the
plant nutrient.

 LUXURY CONSUMPTION: Nutrient absorption by the plant that
does not increase yield.

 EXCESSIVE/TOXIC: Concentration of the essential or other
elements is high enough to reduce plant growth and yield.

 Excessive nutrient concentration can cause an imbalance in other
essential elements, which also can reduce yield.

 Yield is severely affected when a nutrient is deficient.
 When the deficiency is corrected, growth increases more rapidly
than nutrient concentration.

 At the CRITICAL RANGE, plant yield is maximized and unaffected at
SUFFICIENCY.
 Increases in nutrient concentration above the critical range, indicate
that the plant is absorbing nutrients above that needed for maximum
yield.
 Luxury consumption is common in most plants e.g. legumes growing
on high N soil.
 Elements absorbed in excess quantities
(i) directly reduce plant yield by toxicity OR
(ii) indirectly by reducing the concentrations of other nutrients
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below their critical levels. Friday 19 April 2024
ELEMENTS REQUIRED IN PLANT NUTRITION
 Sixteen elements are considered essential to plant growth.
 C, H and O – most abundant in plants.
 Photosynthetic processes in green leaves convert CO2 and H2O
into simple carbohydrate, from which amino acids, sugars,

proteins and nucleic acids are synthesized.
 C,H and O are not mineral nutrients.
 The remaining 13 essential elements as classified as macro- and
micro-nutrients.
 Macronutrients: N, P, K, Ca, Mg and S.
190
 Micronutrients: Fe, Zn, Cu, Mo, Cl, B and Mn. Friday 19 April 2024
 Compared to macronutrients, the concentrations of micronutrients
are very small.

 E.g. N - 1.5 % Fe - 0.01 % (100 ppm)
P - 0.2 % Zn - 0.002 % (20 ppm)

K - 1.0 % Cu - 0.0006 % (6 ppm)
 Five additional elements have been established as essential
elements in some plants. (= Na, Va, Ni, Co and Si).

 Micro-nutrients are so named NOT because they are less
important than macronutrients BUT because they are needed in

SMALL concentrations.
 Micro-nutrient deficiency or toxicity can reduce plant yield similar to
that of macro-nutrients.
 Plants absorb over 60 elements, though they may be non-essential.
 Eg. High Al concentration in plants with  Al levels in soil solution.
 Plant Ash contains all essential and non-essential mineral elements
except C, H, O, N, and S which escape as gases.
 Mineral nutrients in plants vary in concentration in different plants.
 Soil, climate, crop variety and management factors influence
nutrient concentration in plants.

FUNCTION OF NUTRIENTS IN PLANTS
 MACRONUTRIENTS
NITROGEN:
 N2 is an important plant nutrient and is the most frequently deficient
of all nutrients. Plants contain 1 % - 5 % N by weight.
 N2 is absorbed by plants as NO3- or NH4+ or Urea [CO(NH2)2].
 NO3- is the most dominant form in well-aerated soils.
 Before NO3- is utilized by plants, it is reduced to NH4+ or NH3.
 Nitrate reduction involves two enzyme-catalyzed reactions in the
roots/leaves, depending on the plant spp.

 Both reactions occur in series so that NO2- does not accumulate.
 Step 1. NO3- NO2- (by the enzyme Nitrate Reductase
in the cytoplasm).
 Step 2. NO2- NH3 (by Nitrite reductase in the chloroplast).
 The NH3 produced is incorporated into proteins and nucleic acids.
 Proteins provide for the framework for chloroplasts and
mitochondria.
 Chloroplast = site for photosynthesis.
 Mitochondria = site for cellular Respiration.

 The genetic code of nucleic acids determines the type of protein
formed. ie.
 NA (Nucleic acids) determine the quantity and arrangement of
amino acids in each protein.

 DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) present in the mitochondria and
chloroplasts of cells duplicates genetic information in the

chromosomes of the parent cell to the daughter cell.
 RNA present in the cytoplasm and nucleus executes information
coated in DNA mulecules.

 In addition to its role in protein synthesis, N is an integral part of
chlorophyll.
 Chlorophyll is the absorber of light energy for photosynthesis.
 The basic unit of the chlorophyll structure is the porphyrin ring,
made up of four pyrrole rings each containing one N and four C

atoms.
 Vigorous vegetative growth, dark green colour and high
photosynthetic activity is related to adequate N supply.

 An excess of N in relation to other nutrients eg. P, K and S can
delay crop maturity.

 Heavy vegetative growth early in the growing season is a
disadvantage in regions where soil moisture limits plant growth.

 Early season depletion of soil moisture without adequate
replacement before grain filling depresses yields.

 If N is properly utilized in conjunction with other nutrients, it can
speed up the maturation of crops and small grains.

 The supply of N is related to carbohydrate utilization.
 When N supplies are limiting, carbohydrates are deposited in
vegetative cells.
 When N supply is adequate and conditions are favourable for
growth, proteins are formed from manufactured carbohydrates.
 N2 results in succulent plants.
 However, excessive succulence leads to lodging in grain crops and
susceptibility to pests and diseases.

DEFICIENCY OF N:
 Plants become stunted and yellow.
 Loss of protein N from chloroplasts in older leaves leads to chlorosis
(yellowing, the main indicator of N deficiency.

 Chlorosis 1st appear on the lower (older) leaves.
 The upper leaves remain green.
 Under severe N deficiency, lower leaves turn brown and necrotic
and subsequently die.

 Necrosis (Browning) begins from the leaf top and progress along
the midrib till the whole leaf dies.

PHOSPHORUS
 P occurs in plants at concentrations between 0.1 and 0.4 % and is
considerably less than that of N and K.
 Plants absorb P as HPO42- or H2PO4 (ORTHOPHOSPHATE) ions.
 Absorption of HPO42- is higher at low pH.
 Absorption of H2PO4 is higher at high pH.
FUNCTIONS OF PHOSPHORUS
 1. The most important function of P in plants is ENERGY STORAGE
AND TRANSFER.
 ATP and ADP act as energy carriers within plants.
 When the terminal PO42- molecule from either ATP or ADP is

released, a high amount of energy is liberated (12,000 cal/mol).
 Energy obtained from photosynthesis and metabolism of
carbohydrates is stored in PO42- compounds for subsequent use

in growth and reproductive processes.
 Donation or transfer of energy-rich PO42- molecules from ATP to
energy requiring substances in the plant is referred to as

PHOSPHORYLATION.
 In this reaction, ATP is converted to ADP. ADP and ATP are
formed and regenerated in the presence of sufficient P.

 ATP is a source of energy that powers every energy-requiring
biological process in plants.

 2. P is also a structural component of many biochemicals eg.
nucleic acids, coenzymes, nucleotides, phosphoproteins,

phospholipids and sugar phosphates.
 3. An adequate P supply in early plant life is important in the
development of reproductive parts.

 Large quantities of P are found in seed and fruits and is considered
essential to seed formation.

 4. A good supply of P is associated to increased root growth.
 The enhanced/increased root proliferation increases the
exploitation of soil nutrients and water.

 5. P is also associated with the early maturation of grain crops.
 P nutrition reduces the time required for grain ripening.
 6. Adequate P is associated with greater STRAW strength in
cereals.
 7. The quality of fruits/forage/vegetables/grain crops/and disease
resistance is increased with adequate P nutrition.

 8. P also increases the tolerance of small grains to Root-rot
diseases.

DEFICIENCY OF P:
 1. P is mobile in plants.
 When deficiency occurs, P is translocated from the older tissues
to the active meristematic regions.

 P deficiency leads to retarded growth and the foliar symptoms
observed for N or K deficiency are rarely observed.

 2. P deficiency symptoms are expressed by PURPLE
DISCOLORATION of leaves or leaf edges.

 POTASSIUM:
 K ions are actively absorbed from soil solution by plant roots.
 Concentration of K+ in vegetative tissue is 1 - 4 % on dry matter basis.
 Hence plant requirements for available K is high.
 Unlike P and N, K forms no coordinated compounds in the plant.
 Potassium exists solely as K+ ion either (1) in soil solution OR (2)
bonded to negative charges on organic radicals as the acid

radical- :O=C O- K+
 As a result of its ionic nature, K+ functions are related to ionic strength of
solutions within plant cells.

FUNCTIONS OF POTASSIUM
 1. Enzyme Activation:
 Enzymes are involved in many important physiological processes.
 Over 80 plant enzymes require K for their activation.
 Enzyme activation is the most important function of K.
 These enzymes are abundant in meristematic tissue where cell
division takes place rapidly and where primary or new tissues are
formed.

 Egs: (i) STARCH SYNTHETASE is an enzyme that converts soluble
sugars into starch, which is a vital step in the grain filling process.
 (ii) NITROGENASE reduces N2(g) to NH3 in the cells of Rhizobia
bacteria.
 The NH3 is released into the cells of the host plant where it is used
to synthesize amino acids.

 The intensity of N2 reduction depends on the supply of
carbonhydrates (CHO).
 K enhances CHO transport to the nodules and subsequent
utilization for amino acid synthesis.

 2. Water Relations:
 The predominance of K+ over other cations in plants makes its
role in osmotic regulation important.

 K provides the osmotic pull that draws water into plant roots.
 Plants that are deficient in K are less able to withstand water
stress because of their inability to make maximum use of

available water.
 Maintenance of plant turgor (attraction of protoplast to the cell wall
to prevent shrinkage and plasmolysis of tissues) is needed for the

proper functioning of synthetic and metabolic processes.

 An increase in the turgor pressure of the guard cells surrounding each
stoma due to an influx of K leads to the opening of the stomata.

 Malfunctioning of the STOMATA due to K deficiency leads to lower rates
of photosynthesis and less H2O use efficiency.

 Transpiration (loss of water through the stomata) accounts for a major
proportion of water use by the plant.

 K affects the rate of transpiration and water uptake through the regulation
of the stomatal opening.

 Eg. K reduces transpiration rate in peas by complete closure of the
stomata.
 3. Energy Relations:
 Plants require K for synthesis of high-energy PO42- molecules
(ATP), which are produced during both photosynthesis and

respiration.
 Amount of CO2 converted into sugars during photosynthesis
increases rapidly with increasing K.

 4. Translocation of Assimilates:
 After CO2 is assimilated into sugars during photosynthesis, the
sugars are transported to plant organs where they are stored or

used for growth.
 Translocation of sugars need energy in the form of ATP, that
requires K for its synthesis.

 The translocation of sugars from the leaves to storage organs or
to other plant parts for growth is greatly reduced in K- deficient

plants.

 5. Nitrogen (N) Uptake and Protein Synthesis:
 K is involved in protein synthesis.
 Total N uptake and protein synthesis are reduced in K-deficient
plants.
 K-deficient plants have a build-up of amino acids.
 The involvement of K is through the use of ATP for both
processes.
 K aids in grain filling and increased grain yield due to its
association with increased photosynthesis.

DEFICIENCY OF POTASSIUM
 1. When K is limiting, (i) White spots on leaf edges – Alfafa
(ii) Chlorosis and necrosis of leaf edges – Maize and other

grasses eg. sorghum and millet.
 Visual symptoms appear 1st in lower leaves and progresses
towards the top as severity increases.

 2. Weakening of straw in grain crops causes lodging in small
grains and stalk breakage in corn and sorghum.
 This can affect crop production through reduced yields and
harvesting losses.
 Yield reduction may also occur without the appearance of
deficiency symptoms.
 Phenomenon is term hidden hunger and is not restricted to K.
 3. Disease and Pest Incidence: K stress increases crop damage
due to (a) bacterial (b) fungal diseases (c) insect and mite
infestation (d) nematode and (e) virus infection.
 Eg. In soybean pod and stem blight caused by the fungus,
Diaporthe sojae occurs. The gray, mouldy seeds result in lower

seed quality and lower yield.
 Lack of K in wetland rice greatly increases the severity of foliar
214 diseases such as sheath blight and brown leaf spot. Friday 19 April 2024
CALCIUM
 Ca is absorbed by plants as Ca2+and ranges from 0.2 % to 1.0 %.
 (1) Ca is important in the structure and permeability of cell

membranes.
 Lack of Ca2+ leads to the breakdown of membrane structures.
 This results in the lack of retention of cellular diffusible
compounds.
 (2) Ca is related to N metabolism enhances uptake of NO3- - N.

 (3) The presence of Ca2+ ions also regulates cation uptake.
 Eg. K+ and Na+ uptake are about the same in the absence of Ca2+
BUT in the presence of Ca2+, uptake of K+ > Na+.

(4) Ca is essential for cell elongation and division and
therefore plant growth and yield.

 DEFICIENCY OF CALCIUM:
 Ca deficiency results in the failure of terminal buds of shoots and
apical tips of roots to develop, which causes plant growth to cease.

 In corn (maize), Ca2+ deficiency prevents the emergency and
unfolding of new leaves.

 In vegetables and fruits, deficiency leads to disorders in storage
tissues. Eg. blossom end rot in tomato and bitter pit of apples.
 Low mobility of Ca2+ - Less translocation of Ca2+ in the phloem and
therefore a low supply of Ca in fruits and storage organs.

 MAGNESIUM
 Mg is absorbed as Mg2+. Conc. in plants is 0.1 % - 0.4 %.
 (1) Mg2+ is a constituent of chlorophyll molecule. Without
chlorophyll, the autotrophic green plant cannot carry out
photosynthesis.
 Chlorophyll contains 15 - 20 % of total Mg in plants.
 (2) Mg2+ serves as a structural component in RIBOSOMES
(which are sites for protein synthesis).
 (3) Mg is involved in physiological and biochemical
functions. Most reactions involving PO42- transfer from ATP
require Mg2+.
 Since processes of energy transfer occurs in photosynthesis
218 and respiration, Mg2+ is important in metabolism. Friday 19 April 2024

DEFICIENCY OF MAGNESIUM
 Because of the high mobility of plant Mg2+ and its ready
translocation from younger to older leaves, deficiency symptoms

appear first on the lower leaves.
 (1) Shortage of Mg2+ results in interveinal chlorosis of leaves
and only the veins remain green.
 At advanced stages, the leaf tissue becomes uniformly pale
yellow, then becomes brown and necrotic.

SULPHUR
 Absorbed by plants as SO42- ions.
 Concentration of S in plants is 0.1 % to 0.4 %.
 Small quantities of SO2 are absorbed through plant leaves and
utilized but high concentrations are toxic.

 Crop requirements of S increases in the order:
Graminae < Leguminosae < Cruciferae.

 S content of seeds in those families are: 0.18 % - 0.19 %, 0.25
% - 0.3 % and 1.1 % - 1.7 % respectively

FUNCTIONS OF SULPHUR
 (1) Sulphur is important in plant growth and metabolism.

 It is required for synthesis of S-containing amino acids eg. Cystine,
Cysteine and methionine, which are essential components of

proteins.
 90 % of S in plants is found in these amino acid and
 (2) Sulphur is needed for the synthesis of other metabolites eg.

Co-enzyme A, biotin, thiamine (or Vit. B1) and glutathione.
 Co-enzyme A is the most important of these metabolites and is
involved in the oxidation and synthesis of fatty acids and synthesis of
221 amino acids. Friday 19 April 2024

 (3) Sulphur is a vital component of ferredoxins (Fe-S proteins)
occurring in chloroplasts.
 Ferredoxin participates in the transfer of electrons and has a
significant role in: (i) Nitrate reduction (ii) Sulphate reduction and
(iii) Assimilation of N2 by root nodule bacteria.
 (4) Sulphur occurs in volatile compounds and is responsible for the
characteristic taste and smell of plants eg. onion.

 (5) Sulphur enhances oil formation in crops such as soybeans.
 (6) Although Sulphur is not a constituent of chlorophyll, it is required
for chlorophyll synthesis and hence photosynthesis.

 DEFICIENCY OF SULPHUR
 (1) Sulphur deficiency retards crop growth and plants are

uniformly chlorotic , stunted, thin-stemmed and spindly.
 In many plants, symptoms resemble those of N deficiency.
 However, S is not easily translocated from older to younger plant
parts. Deficiency symptoms occur first in younger leaves.

 (2) In the cruciferous family eg. cabbage, a REDDISH colour is
initially developed on the underside of leaves.
 As deficiency progresses in cabbage, there is REDDING and
PURPLING of both upper and lower leaf surfaces.

 MICRONUTRIENTS:
 BORON (B)
 Concentration: monocots (6 – 18 % ppm), Dicots (18 – 20 %).
 Boron is absorbed by plants as undissociated (H 3BO3).
 Limited amounts of ionic forms eg. B4O72-, B2O3-, HBO32- and
BO33- are taken up by plants.

 FUNCTIONS OF BORON (B)
 Development and growth of new cells in meristematic tissues
 Flowering and fruit development

 Plants also require Boron for growth processes such as:
 Proper pollination and fruit/or seed set.
 Translocation of sugars, starches, N and P.
 Synthesis of amino acids and proteins.
 Nodule formation in legumes.
 Regulation of carbohydrate metabolism.

 DEFICIENCY OF BORON (B):
 First visual symptoms are the cessation of terminal growth
followed by the death of young leaves.

 Why?? Boron is not readily translocated from the older to actively
growing tissues.
 Youngest leaves become pale green and if growth continues,
leaves have a one-sided or twisted appearance.

 Sterility and impaired seed set are the late-season symptoms of
Boron deficiency.

 Boron deficiency symptoms appear as:
 i. Thickened, wilted or curled leaves.

 ii. Thickened, cracked or water-soaked petioles and stems.
 Uneven thickness of the peel, lumpy fruit and gummy deposits on
CITRUS fruits.
 BROWN-HEART or BLACK HEART in ROOT CROPS due to the
breakdown of the internal tissues.

 Flowering and fruit development are impaired.
 Discoloration, cracking or rotting of fruit, tubers or Roots.

IRON (Fe):
 Sufficiency range of Fe in plant tissue is 50 - 250 ppm.
 Fe contents in dry matter < 50 ppm show deficiency symptoms.
 Fe is absorb as Fe2+ or Fe3+ and organically complexed or
chelated Fe.
 However, it is Fe2+ sp. that is utilized in metabolic processes.
 Fe2+ is more mobile and available than Fe3+, for incorporation into
plant tissues/or bimolecular structures.

FUNCTIONS OF Fe:
 1. Fe is important in oxidation-reduction reactions in soil and plants.
 Fe can accept or donate electrons according to the oxidation
potential of the reactants.

 ie. Fe3+ + e- Fe2+ (or Fe2+ - e- Fe3+).
 The movement of electrons between organic molecules and Fe aids
in enzymatic reactions.
 2. Enzymes are involved in chlorophyll synthesis and when Fe is
deficient, chlorophyll is reduced and leads to characteristic chlorotic

symptoms of Fe stress.
 3. Fe is a structural component of porphyrin molecules: -
cytochromes, hemes, hematin, ferrichrome and leghemoglobin.

 The substances are involved in redox reactions in respiration and
photosyntheis.
 Eg: 75 % of total cell Fe is associated with chloroplasts and 90
% of Fe in leaves occurs with lipoproteins of chloroplasts and

mitochondria membranes.
 4. Fe is an important part of the enzyme, Nitrogenase that is
essential for N2 fixation in N2 - fixing micro-organisms.

 DEFICIENCY OF Fe:
 1. Citrus exhibits Fe Chlorosis.
 Common in sorghum, soybeans, vegetable crops and maize.
 2. Deficiency first appears in the young leaves.
 Fe is not transported from the older tissues to the tip meristerm.
 As it progresses, growth ceases, young leaves develop
interveinal chlorosis which progresses rapidly over entire leaves.

 In severe cases, the leaves turn entirely WHITE.

MANGANESE (Mn):
 Concentration in plants = 20 - 500 ppm.
 If upper plant parts have concentration < 15 - 20 ppm, the plant is
considered to be deficient in Mn.
 Absorbed by plants as Mn2+ and in molecular combinations with
complexing agents.
FUNCTIONS OF Mn:
 1. Mn is involved in photosynthesis.
 2. Mn takes part in reduction-oxidation processes and also
decarboxylation and hydrolysis reactions.
 Mn2+ can substitute for Mg2+ in many phophorylation reactions.
 3. Mn is needed for maximal activity of many enzymatic reactions in
the citric acid cycle.
 4. Mn influences auxin levels in plants.
 High concentrations of Mn favours the breakdown of indole-acetic acid.
DEFICIENCY OF Mn
 Mn is relatively immobile like Fe.
 Deficiency symptoms show up 1st in the younger leaves.
 In broad leaved plants, interveinal chlorosis occurs.
 In many crops, Mn deficiency is described by terms such as:
 1. Grey specks of oats 2. Marsh spot of peas and
3. Speckled yellows of sugar beets.

 Wheat plants low in Mn are susceptible to rot root diseases.

TOXICITY OF Mn
 Crinkle leaf of cotton occurs in highly acid soils due to Mn toxicity.
 Mn toxicity is also observed in tobacco, soybeans and fruit trees
growing on very acid soils.

 REMEDY:- Upward adjustment of pH by liming readily corrects
the problem.

COPPER (Cu):
 Absorbed as cupric ions, Cu2+ and as a component of organic
complexes.
 Normal concentration in plants = 5 - 20 ppm.
 FUNCTIONS OF Cu:
 Cu binds and reduces O2.
 In the oxidized form, protein complexed Cu has a high redox
potential.
 These properties of Cu enable enzymes to create complex
polymers such as Lignin and Melanin.
 Cu is the most important element involved in enzyme activity.

DEFICIENCY OF Cu:
 In Corn/Maize, youngest leaves become yellow and stunted.
 As deficiency becomes more severe, young leaves become PALE
and older leaves die-back.

 In vegetable crops, leaves lack tugor and develop bluish-green
casts; become chlorotic and curl and flower production fails to

take places.
 In small-grains, younger plant leaves lose colour and the tips die.

ZINC:
 Zn plant concentration = 25 - 150 ppm.
 Deficiency occurs at plant concentration < 20 ppm.
 Toxicity occurs at concentration > 400 ppm.
 Zn absorbed as Zn2+ and component of organic complexes.
 Soluble Zn salts and complexes enter leaves directly.
 FUNCTIONS OF Zn:
 Zn is involved in many enzymatic activities.
 Zn is important (1) in the synthesis of tryptophane, which is a
component of some proteins and (2) in a compound needed for the
237
production of growth hormones (auxins) like indoleacetic Friday
acid.19 April 2024
DEFICIENCY OF Zn:
 Occurrence of light green, yellow or white areas between veins of
leaves, especially older, lower leaves.
 Death of tissue in the discoloured, chlorotic leaf areas.
 Shortening of stem or stalk internodes, resulting in a bushy,
rosetted appearance of leaves.
 Small, narrow, thickened leaves and early loss of foliage.
 Malformation of fruits, often with little or no yield.
 Zn deficiency causes the characteristic little leaf and rosetting or
clustering of leaves at the top of fruit tree branches.
 In corn and sorghum, Zn deficiency is called White bud and little
leaf (cotton) and Mottle leaf or Freching (citrus) and fern leaf
(Potato).
MOLYBDENUM (Mo):
 Mo is a non-metal anion absorbed as MoO 42-.
 This is a weak acid and forms complex polyanions eg.
phosphomolybdonate.
 Sequestering of Mo in this form is the reason why its excessive
uptake does not lead to toxicity in plants.

 Mo in plant material is < 1 ppm.
 Deficiency - < 0.2 ppm.
 Concentration of Mo in plants is low because of the very low
concentration of MoO42- in soil solution.

 FUNCTIONS OF Mo:
 Mo is an essential component of the enzyme, NO3- reductase
(=Catalyse the conversion of NO3- to NH3).

 Mo is a structural component of Nitrogenase (=enzyme involved
in Nitrogen fixation by root-nodule bacteria in legumes).

 Mo enhances the absorption and translocation of Fe in plants.
 DEFICIENCY OF Mo:
 Decrease the fixation of N2
 Reduce the absorption and translocation of Fe in plants.

CHLORIDE (Cl-):
 Absorbed as Cl- through roots and aerial parts.
 Concentration = 0.2 to 2.0 %, but could be up to 10 % .
FUNCTIONS OF Cl-:
 The role of Cl- ions is in its biochemical inertness. This inertness
enables Cl- to perform osmotic and cation neutralization roles.
 NO3- & SO42- uptake can be reduced by competition with Cl- ions.
 Cl- have a role in the evolution of O2 in photosystem II in
photosynthesis.
DEFICIENCY OF Cl-:
 Chlorosis in younger leaves and wilting of plants.
 Necrosis in some plant parts, leaf bronzing and reduction in growth
rate occurs in Cl- deficient plants.

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AGR 405: SOIL MICROBIOLOGY, FERTILITY AND

PLANT NUTRITION (COURSE OUTLINE)

Major groups of soil micro-organisms

1 Friday 19 April 2024

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4. Organic matter requirements:

5. Exchangeable calcium and pH relationship:

6 Friday 19 April 2024

 On the basis of organization, "Actino" occupy a position between true moulds

 IMPORTANCE : "Actino" are important in the decomposition of Soil OM and

into simpler forms. Abundance of "Actino" implies a higher breakdown of

 "Actino" develop best in moist, well-aerated soils.

 They are sensitive to acid-soil conditions

 Prohibited growth at pH 5.0 and below

 Optimal development at pH 6.0-7.5

 This relationship of soil reaction and "Actino" is used to control

potato scab, an "Actino" disease.

8 Friday 19 April 2024

OM of the soil for their growth.

 Main Characteristic of Fungi = FILAMENTOUS NATURE of vegetative forms.

 Mycelia threads may be simple or profusely branched.

 Spore-forming or fruiting bodies of some groups attain macroscopic size.

 Fungal organisms vary from: simple microscopic yeast to mushrooms.

 Fungi are divided into 3 groups: 1. Yeast 2. Moulds 3. Mushroom fungi

 (2) and (3) are considered important in soils.

 (1) yeast - occur to limited extent in soils. Friday 19 April 2024

Complex compounds - Cellulose/starch/gums/ lignin and

Simple Compounds – Proteins and sugars.

 MOLDS aid in Humus formation and aggregate stabilization.

off by-products CO2 and NH3.

they fix atm. N. as bacteria do.

10 Friday 19 April 2024

 Are associations between fungi and the roots of higher plants.

Mycorrhizae, a term meaning “Fungus root”.

 Mycorrhizae are divided into 2 general classes based on the interaction

of the fungal hyphae and the root cells.

epidermis (=Cortical and epidermal cells) of the root.

the plant root.

 Fungi utilize carbohydrates of the plant.

 Plants – uptake of nutrients especially, P, is increased due to increased

root surface area for nutrient absorption.

 Growth of mycorrhizae infected plants exceeds that of uninfected plants.

 Mycorrhizae take part in organic matter decomposition and thereby

increase soil fertility.

atm. N2 is fixed or changed into combined forms by these

 Algae utilize the CO2 in swamp soils and create suitable

conditions for rice plant growth.

 Roots of rice have a large supply of dissolved O2 in swamp H2O

due to photosynthetic activity of algae.

13 Friday 19 April 2024

14 Friday 19 April 2024

ORGANIZATION than Bacteria. eg. Amoeba exhibits a much higher

 1. Amoeba 2. Ciliates 3. Flagellates.

appendages are the basis for subdivisions 2 and 3 respectively.

 Protozoa are the most varied and numerous micro-fauna in soils.

15 Friday 19 April 2024