SHIFTING PARADIGMS OF

PUBLIC HEALTH
Presented by:
Santoshi Paudel
MPH 2023
SPH&CM
BPKIHS, Dharan, Nepal
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The ideas of the ruling class are in every epoch the ruling
ideas, i.e. the class which is the ruling material force of
society, is at the same time its ruling intellectual force. The
class which has the means of material production at its
disposal has control at the same time over the means of
mental production, so that thereby, generally speaking, the
ideas of those who lack the means of mental production
are subject to it. The ruling ideas are nothing more than the
ideal expression of the dominant material relationships, the
dominant material relationships grasped as ideas.
–Karl Marx ( [1843] 1977b ): German Ideology
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CHAPTER 5
IDEAS AND IDEOLOGIES OF
METHODOLOGICAL INDIVIDUALISM
IN SOCIOLOGY OF KNOWLEDGE
AND NEOLIBERAL ECONOMICS

Part II Methodological Individualism in Social Sciences

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• Methodological individualism (MI) is a concept from the

19th century which played a major role in the history of
ideas and ideologies.

• It is a type of materialistic metaphysics and nominalist

epidemiology and has prominent influence in social
science research till this day.

• It suggests that understanding society comes from

studying the actions and behaviors of individuals.

• MI originated with Thomas Hobbes, who believed society

is formed by interactions among competitive individuals
with innate drives.
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• Other thinkers expanded on this idea, explaining society

through individualistic perspectives.

• During the Renaissance, people started seeing

themselves as separate from the collective.

• However, Auguste Comte believed that society cannot be

reduced to individuals, similar to how a geometric surface
cannot be reduced to lines or points.

• John Stuart Mill, an early advocate of MI, believed social

phenomena can only be explained by studying individual
human nature.
5.1 LESSONS FROM THE
SOCIOLOGY OF
KNOWLEDGE
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• Joseph A. Schumpeter coined the expression MI in 1942

and described it as an exclusively scientific strategy that
focuses on the actions of individuals when studying
certain economic processes.

• His ideas influenced notable thinkers such as Hayek

(1948), Popper (1966), and JWN Watkins (1957), among
others.

• They argued that social phenomena should be

understood as a result of human action and criticized
explanations that relied solely on collectives.
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• Popper, in particular, emphasized the rejection of

explanations based on so-called collectives and highlighted
the importance of understanding individual actions.

• Hayek and Watkins believe that understanding social

phenomena involves studying the actions and
characteristics of individuals.

• Hayek thinks we can understand social phenomena by

interpreting others' intentions and plans.

• Hayek wrote in “the Facts of the Social Science” that we

understand what other people tell us, and can be
understood only by interpretation other people’s intentions’
and plans
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• Watkins says that any social tendency can be changed if

individuals want to change it and have the right
information.

• Both Hayek and Watkins explanations based on groups of

people are not enough.

• Hayek mentions that understanding different types of

beings can be challenging, sometimes requiring an
objective approach.

• Watkins excludes physical factors we can't control from

his definition of "social" tendencies.
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Methodological Individualism (MI):

• Emphasizes explaining social phenomena by focusing
on individuals.
• Argues that understanding individual thoughts, actions,
and relationships is crucial.
• Believes large-scale social phenomena are best
explained through individuals.
Sociological Holism/Organicism:
• Views social systems as "wholes" with their own
governing laws.
• Emphasizes macro-level explanations specific to
society.
• Holds that individual behavior is influenced by these
sociological laws.
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Ideologists:
• Emile Durkheim:
• Recognizes the importance of collective consciousness.
• Considers individualism as a product of society.
• Views individualism as a unifying force for modern
society.
• Max Weber:
• Highlights the significance of individual actions and their
subjective meanings.
• Argues for understanding social explanations through
individual actions and understandings.
• Advocates focusing on individuals rather than abstract
concepts like social structures.
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• In summary, there is a debate between methodological

individualism and sociological holism.

• Durkheim emphasizes the role of collective

consciousness and sees individualism as a unifying force.
Weber stresses the importance of individual actions and
subjective meanings when explaining social phenomena.
 5.2 BREAKING DOWN
NEOCLASSICAL ECONOMICS:
THE POWER OF
METHODOLOGICAL
INDIVIDUALISM
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• Economics, like other social sciences and

psychology, was influenced by scientism,
particularly mechanics.

• The mechanistic view from natural sciences, with

its mathematical tools, had a significant impact on
economics.

• Neoclassical economics, influenced by mechanistic

epistemology, dominates economic theory and
focuses on maximizing individual behaviors.
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Classical political economy vs. neoclassical

economics:

• Classical political economists like Adam Smith,

David Ricardo, and Karl Marx analyzed advancing
capitalist economies in terms of social relations
and social groups.

• Neoclassical economics introduced a shift in the

unit of analysis, focusing on individuals rather than
social groups.
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Methodological individualism in economics:

• Methodological individualism (MI) in economics

emphasizes the decisions and actions of individual
agents as the basic unit of observation and
analysis.

• MI aims to distinguish itself from psychologism and

subjectivism, but it overlooks social factors and
qualitative differences in behavior due to an
individual's social group.
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Walrasian general equilibrium theory and neoclassical

economics:

• The Walrasian general equilibrium theory describes the

economy as a harmonious system where individuals make
independent decisions.

• This theory assumes autonomous individuals, reversible

decisions, and ignores the hysteresis effect.

• Such assumptions mimic mechanistic methods applied to

freely moving particles, lacking a historical dimension.
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Austrian school and methodological

individualism:

• The Austrian school, associated with

methodological individualism, considers the actions
and decisions of individual agents as the focus of
observation and analysis.

• Austrian Aristotelianism emphasizes strict

universality of laws and the recognition of general
recurring structures in the flux of reality.
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Contrasts between methodological holism and

methodological individualism:

• Marx and Menger shared an antipathy towards atomism but

had radically different views on holism and individualism.

• Marx advocated for holism and ontological collectivism,

focusing on establishing general laws of development.

• The Austrian school favored methodological individualism

and ontological individualism, treating social wholes as
eliminable shorthand for individuals.
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Hayek's concept of human liberty:

• Hayek valued liberty as the absence of coercion and
considered natural-social disadvantages as akin to a
lottery rather than coercion.

• He dismissed the legitimacy of collective infringement on

individual liberty, equating it to random distribution of
constraints.

Keynes and the challenge to neoclassical economics:

• John Maynard Keynes challenged neoclassical
economics during the Great Depression, questioning the
reliance on the atomistic laissez-faire competitive system
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Conclusion of chapter 5.2

• Classical political economy: Focuses on social relations
and social groups as drivers of economic change.
• Neoclassical economics: Shifts focus to individual behavior
and maximizing objectives, treating society as a collection of
independent individuals.
• Methodological individualism (MI): Emphasizes individual
decisions as the basic unit of analysis, neglecting social
factors and qualitative differences.
• Austrian school of economics: Advocates for MI and
believes in universal laws governing economic phenomena.
• Neoclassical economics flaws: Assumes equilibrium with
independent and reversible decisions, ignores historical
context and social processes.
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Conclusion
• Methodological individualism (MI) is a perspective in the
sociology of knowledge that emphasizes explaining social
phenomena solely through individual human actions.

• MI is contrasted with methodological holism, which

highlights social determination and macro structural
explanations.

• Prominent proponents of MI include Hobbes, Mill, Weber,

Schumpeter, Popper, Hayek, and Elster.
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Conclusion
• The Durkheimian and Weberian versions of individualism
have influenced the development of individualism in public
health discourse.

• Neoliberal economics, influential in public health, has also

shifted towards individualism through schools like the
Walrasian, Austrian, and Chicago schools.

• This shift detached economic discourse from holism and

emphasized the concept of a 'free' rational agent making
choices in an open market.

• The individualistic perspective tends to be ahistorical and

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