5.

STEPHEN WELLACE
OBSERVING METHOD:
RECOGNIZING THE
SIGNIFICANCE OF BELIEF,
DISCIPLINE, POSITION
AND DOCUMENTATION IN
OBSERVATIONAL
STUDIES
Presented By:
Santoshi Paudel
Santoshi Poudel
MPH 2023
MPH 2023
SPH&CM
Introduction: Situation
The current wave of ‘reality television’ shows us just how engaging and revealing the
processes of observation

Professional work dependent upon the powers of observation (eg: patient observation)

Observational Methods: ‘A royal road’ in the routine activities of these professionals,

take such a prominent place in their research activities as well.

Sanger (1996) re-describes the Problem faced by the researcher investigating ongoing
life-world ‘whirring, buzzing confusion’ of an information-rich environment as the
problem of social noise. (when phrases such as Too much information from recent Tarantino film
became a topic with cultural meaning)
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Introduction: believing is seeing?
The act of observation both loses and adds dimensions which are often
extremely difficult to identify, or even specify explicitly as the observer is
expected to perform:

-Competently as a member of the tribe

-But is also expected to extract some coherent meanings from this field, and
‘bring them back’ for later use.

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 Introduction: believing is seeing? continued…
Seeing is believing
While it may sound obvious to say ‘seeing is believing’ it is very problem of
identification and naming of what one sees and is at heart of observation.

Skilled observers see what they believe, rather than believe what they see and it is
hard to imagine the collection of data without a belief in what one observes;

Different idea of thoughts on Seeing is believing:

Until Popper's time in 1992, it was commonly thought that observations were free
from theory however, he argued that all observations are influenced by some
theory, making them ‘theory-laden’.

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 Introduction: believing is seeing? continued…
Seeing is believing
Different idea of thoughts on Seeing is believing:

He argued that even in the most rigorously controlled and designed scientific studies,
we saw what we believed, rather than simply believed what we saw.

Observational beliefs are now heavily influenced by the methods and technologies
used for data collection, which, in turn, rely predominantly on social conventions and
practices (Collins 1985)

While others would argue that the problems of observation can be resolved by
increasing dependence on technology, many micro-studies of such technological
observations show how the problems of observation are simply shifted further up the
belief chain, rather than resolved by this move (see also Latour 1986). 5
 Introduction: believing is seeing? continued…

Emphasizing belief as the foundation of observation highlights its contingent and

social nature.

If all observations are premised upon socially-mediated value and belief systems,
then there is no possibility of value-free or belief-free observations serving as a
vital starting point for all those involved in making and reading observational
studies.

 Sanger (1996) claims that observation arises from 'otherness' understanding

differences and Jorgensen (1989) suggests exploring 'otherness' by asking insiders
to compare their world with others is a useful approach in observational studies.
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 Introduction: believing is seeing? continued…

The expert observer knows well of:

-The tension between the stresses of maintaining the most natural and
open categorical attitude in the midst of a ‘sea of stimuli’ and

-The relative comfort of sorting these chaotic observations into trusted and
well-used categories.

Because observation is heavily influenced by social factors, creating clear

boundaries between the 'observed' and the 'observer' is challenging which brings
risks and raises concerns about how objective the observation process can be, given
its inherent ties to social dynamics.
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Observing method: Methodology
Observations are often supplemented and complemented by conversations with
social actors about things that are not understood while observing

Open questions are preferred- generates both more fulsome response and cascade
of other questions

Different school of thoughts:

Jorgensen suggested ‘how things might have been otherwise, even within the
same social world with the same participants’ after the trust and rapport building
has been developed are very fruitful

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 Observing method: Methodology continued…

Different school of thoughts:

Sanger- skilled researcher can observe ‘absences’ as well as instances which is

very useful to collect or examine documents and artefacts of the significance to the
social world.

Clark and Fujimura- warns us on dangers of ‘cleaning up’ data especially when
observations seems inconsistent with other data.

Focault (1980) introduces other dimensions which is distal and political

implications that arises when actors are observed in their social world.

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 Observing method: Methodology continued…

However author suggested to observe the social world naturally rather than using
strict and controlled methods hence the traditional criteria of validity and
reliability may not be suitable

Ecological validity- suggested that rather than aiming for reliability or validities
one aims to conduct intensive, extensive and non-intrusive observations to
understand the social world from an insider's perspective, rather than an objective
world view. (Wallace 1999)

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 Observing method: Methodology continued…

Sampling in Observational study:

• Determining the number of informants, observation sites, and the study's duration
requires careful consideration.

• Problem of sampling in terms of ‘proper specification’ of an adequate and

appropriate group of informants who are able to inform researcher about particular
social worlds (DeWalt and DeWalt 2002)

• Non-Probability Sampling is done

• However, this approach raises concerns about data sufficiency, prompting the
consideration of 'saturation’
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 Observing method: Methodology continued…

Sampling in Observational study:

• Challenges related to the visibility and accessibility of various social worlds as

individuals and communities engaged in unconventional, antisocial, or undesirable
behaviors pose difficulties for researchers to access and observe, especially when
these behaviors are criminal or conducted in secret.

• Involvement of 'hidden' populations have proved particularly difficult to

research from a conventional viewpoint and raise ethical concerns.

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 Observing method: Methodology continued…

Ethical Concerns:

• Observational studies are well known to replete with ethical content.

• Leaving aside the heavy burden of research governance which increasingly embraces
wider dimensions of research activities some particular ethical issues arise in
observational studies such as:

Obtaining informed consent can be challenging in observational studies where

participants may not be directly engaged or aware of being observed.

Observational studies often involve the collection of sensitive information.

Maintaining privacy and confidentiality can be complex, especially when studying
individuals in public spaces.
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 Observing method: Methodology continued…

Ethical and Methodological Dilemmas in Observational Studies:

1.
2. Dilemmas of 3. Dilemmas of
Ethical/Methodological Anonymity:
Informed consent
dilemmas
• Deciding whether • How much • The difficulty of keeping
or not to intervene participants participants' identities
in the social should know private while still
setting, balancing about the study to providing detailed
ethical get accurate data information in
responsibilities observational studies.
and maintaining
the integrity of the
study.

These challenges highlight the tough decisions researchers must make to

conduct ethical and effective observational research
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 Observing method: Methodology continued…

• Covert observations, while posing methodological challenges, are ethically

problematic due to the absence of informed consent and the potential for
providing misleading information to participants, despite attempts to mitigate
these concerns through methods like breaching experiments and one-way mirrors.

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Positioning the observer
 Participant Observation: A qualitative methodology in which the observer progressively
becomes a member of the tribe and collects observations through participation in the social
world.

Ethical and methodological considerations when immersing oneself in a research setting:

Sanger (1996) emphasizes the importance of fully explaining about the observer’s presence
in the field

 Successful negotiations with participants should precede observations.

The observer should enter the field simultaneously with participants, choosing a position
where it is possible to observe the greatest range of interaction yet maintains some
interpretive ambiguity about the role one is taking. 16
 Positioning the observer continued…

Sanger advise on Participant Observation:

• limited eye contact with participants,

• a distributed observational gaze across participants,

• appropriate clothing,

• and adopting a common body position to align with participants' activities.

The observer is advised to display a moderate level of interest in the observed

circumstances and proceedings.

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 Positioning the observer continued…

What to Observe?

• Observing the material, geographic, temporal and spatial dimensions was given
much value on the research field as human action may appear in principle to be the
‘figure’ in the research ‘ground’.

• Quantitative data may serve as a useful introductory data; development of the

general curiosity and eclecticism about the kind of data gathered as ‘significance’
is a problematic concept in observation. -Jorgensen (1989)

• By closely examining either ‘figure’ main subject or ‘ground’ background

produces interesting and useful knowledge. -Ronald Barthes (study of photography)

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 Positioning the observer continued…

Strategies for Effective Participant Observation:

• Expect both Welcoming Unwelcoming environment

• Should recognize distinctive sub-labels- "Insiders" tend to make detailed

distinctions between different social groups within that social world (Spradly 1970)

• Rapport building

- Use of insiders language where use of their terminology only would not be sufficient to
indicate the level of ‘verstehen’ required for such rapport to develop.
- Use of appropriate self-disclosure is also a reliable method for generating rapport, such
disclosures need to be tempered by the demands for ecological validity
Jorgensen (1989) 19
 Positioning the observer continued…

When should we avoid Participant Observation?

• Researcher holds negative views about the social world of interest and its
members.

• Participant observers imported have strong emotional attachments and investments

in the social world they were researching.

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Being there- the Participant observer
 Participant Observation emphasizes on observing the routine and mundane
performances of social world in natural setting and understanding such performance

 Participant observer: What to do

• Live in the context for an extended period of time

• Learn and use the local language and dialect.

• Participate actively in a wide range of the daily routine

• Use everyday conversation as an interview technique,

• Spend long periods ‘hanging out’ in the social world, especially during recreation or
leisure activities. 21
 Being there- the Participant observer continued…

Before Participant Observation

• Demonstrate familiarity with existing literature on the topic and the social world
in question.

• Ensure the research site is suitable for informing or interrogating the existing
literature and that the chosen theoretical approach is appropriate.

• Align the chosen methods with the theoretical approach, the research setting, and
the informants.

• Confirm the investigator's competence to fulfill all the above requirements.

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 Being there- the Participant observer continued…

Jorgensen (1989) suggested participants observation require more than the craft of
skilled observation as:

• both the aims and particular strategies of participant observation emerge over the
course of their study, rather than are predetermined at the outset

• there is no complete and consistent set of rules to follow in the observational

field, and this is especially true when one undertakes participant observation.

Participant Observation is an useful method to understand the lived

world of particular social actors

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 Being there- the Participant observer continued…

Areas for consideration:

• level of ‘immersion’ should be determined by the demands of the research situation

• the resources of the observer and may shift over the course of the observational period

• Viewing the participant observer as ‘outsider’ rather than as ‘insiders’ will influence individuals
respond to demand characteristics like social desirability. However, poses the risk of ‘capture’, if
one poses very ‘inside’ participant position for eg: study of religious prophecy by Festinger et al

• Data derived from participant observation are rarely likely to yield the kind of nomothetic,
mainstream data characteristically produced by more positivistic methods which are routinely
employed within the social sciences, such as questionnaires, interviews, and other archival
documents.

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 Being there- the Participant observer continued…

• The methodology of participant observation seeks to uncover, make accessible,

and reveal the meanings (realities) people use to make sense out of their daily
lives.

• the peculiar position of the participant/observer is a delicate balance between

behaving as a culturally competent member of the tribe, and maintaining
sufficient ‘strangeness’ to recognize and construct analytic utility

• made considerably easier through the compilation of an index of key linguistic

and discursive resources deployed in this social world

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 Being there- the Participant observer continued…

• Participants Observation makes huge demands to learn how to ‘walk the walk’
and ‘talk the talk’ which is inescapable

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 Being there- the Participant observer continued…

Participant Observation: Advantages

• Allows the tacit aspects of culture, which largely remain outside our awareness,
to be noticed, noted, and analyzed in some depth

• Methodological flexibility will enable the observer to scope a wide range of

phenomena, and be sensitive to new research opportunities

• Useful method to understand the lived world of particular social actors

• Useful when it is believed that there are differences between the views of insiders
and outsiders,

• Yield the thick and rich data to provide the verstehen i.e. understanding of a social
world from the perspective of the members inside the social world. 27
 Being there- the Participant observer continued…

Participant Observation: Advantages

• Preservation of ecological validity

• Over time, it renders the appearance of the observer as much less ‘reactive’

• Important for ethnographic study

• Informant selection often involves 'opportunistic' or 'convenience' sampling

contributing to the methodological flexibility and contingency which gives
unique strength and capacities to qualitative approach

• Groups like drug users, often considered 'invisible,' have become a focus for
ethnographic researchers due to the advantages of this method.
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Problems on Observation study
• Maintaining a sense of relaxation and competence in the field while also being
alert and open to the possibilities of novel observations and the subsequent
demand for the generation of new categories.

• Reactance i.e. the influence of the process of observation upon the observed (aka
Hawthrone effect) which affects internal validity.

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 Being there- the Participant observer continued…

Problems while conducting Participatory Inquiry:

• Conducting participatory inquiry in social worlds with illegal practices and actors
behaving in socially undesirable ways

• Personal safety of participants (in social words many practices are illegal and
many actors behave in socially undesirable ways)

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Recording, Analyzing and Documenting
Recording:

• tape or video recording however, such technological devices are only and always
aids, and can never be considered as substitutes for the human observer

• mini-disc recorder is also preferred because of its capacity for rapid download onto
a computer for later analysis, its smaller size

Documentation:

• Right time to start writing ‘if you have not begun to write;

• neither be too cautious about recording the early observations, not too reliant upon
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their significance at a later point of the study
Recording, Analyzing and Documenting
Documentation:

• detail, extensiveness and richness of one’s field notes are crucial aspects of
observational studies

• use of a wide range of graphic material in the field notes such as diagrams and other
graphic media provide not only a crucial record of the social life that one observed
at a particular point, but an invaluable series of reference points to guide and inform
the data analysis. - Malinowski and DeWalt and DeWalt

• It is always better to write more than less in one’s field notes.

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 Recording, Analyzing and Documenting continued…

Documentation:

• Better try to complete each field note writing session as soon as possible after the
observations

• Record the observations in field notes and organized them chronologically with
the use of bound ‘journal’

• ‘Jot notes’ are also suggested for keeping

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 Recording, Analyzing and Documenting continued…

Field notes are both data and analysis

Analysis:

• Analytical categories should proceed in a funnel like way from the very broad to the
quite narrow (aka progressive focusing)

• As Sanger suggested he find it useful to leave the work on developing for some time
and when he return, re-read the basic observational data, to see what emerges on a
fresh reading. Which generates surprising and new sensitizing concepts to enrich
initial analysis.

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 Recording, Analyzing and Documenting continued…

Data Analysis Steps:

• Use of operational definition when observation phenomenon of interest is easily

bounded and defined

• break down a complex and detailed flow of social life into much narrower, static,
descriptive categories.

• Also tries to link a number of these micro-dimensions together to make larger,

more thematic units very few rules or guidelines to help with this process

• Prior and close familiarity with the theoretical and empirical literature on the
subject of inquiry, and the social worlds of interest.
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 Recording, Analyzing and Documenting continued…

Data Analysis Steps:

• Use of active rather than passive verbs and the economical use of words, while
avoiding repetition. Also concrete and specific descriptions rather than abstract
and general ones, and suggests examples and illustrations are always helpful

• worth adding that metaphors should always clarify and strengthen other texts.

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Conclusion:
Observation in research relies so heavily upon a set of, often unacknowledged,
philosophical assumptions.

It seems that we see what we believe rather than believe what we see.

 As there is no methodological way out of this dilemma, the best we might hope for
are clear expressions of our underlying philosophy and adequately specified and
expressed observation statements.

While observation is not proposed as a definitive method, it is valued as a

complementary approach to data gathering.

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 Conclusion continued…

Its strength lies in its ability to offer data that can test, inform, or question
information obtained through other methods.

Observation, particularly through participant observation in ethnographic studies, is

emphasized as valuable.

However, it is acknowledged that observational data poses challenges similar to

other methodologies, with issues like sampling, reactance, and ethics often difficult
to resolve.

Researchers undertaking observational studies, especially in the field, require

substantial skills acquired through extensive experience and reflection.
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 Conclusion continued…

The potential of observational methods to generate substantial data is noted,

necessitating meticulous initial storage and later analysis to justify the significant
costs involved.

The interplay between data-gathering and analysis is acknowledged as inherently

problematic in observational studies.

Despite the challenges, the passage highlights the rewarding and revealing nature
of collecting and analyzing observational data in the social and human sciences.

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Prominent figures: Observation Method
Malinowski pioneered participant observation in the 1920s, now the method of choice
in anthropology and ethnographic fieldwork
Becker pioneered participant observation over forty years ago; despite current
research governance trends, the method remains popular.
One of the most revealing of these participant observation studies is one conducted by
Latour and Woolgar (1979) at the Salt Research Institute.
Jack Sanger (1996) wrote The Complete Observer? A Field Research Guide to
Observation.
Karl Popper (1992) philosopher and professor at the London School of Economics
DeWalt and Dewalt (2002) wrote Participant Observation: A Guide for Fieldworkers.
Jorgensen (1989) wrote Participant Observation: A Methodology for Human Studies

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 Take Home Messages
How Informants are selected:

Either selected or select themselves through the process of convenient sampling

Who are the informants:

Member of the social world

Who conducts the research:

Non-members of social world

What Information to gather:

Both etic and emic perspectives by observer progressively becoming the member of the tribe
and collecting observation through a skilled performance of participation in the social world
Emphasizes on observing the routine and mundane performances of social world in natural
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setting and understanding such performance
42