Human development

Chapter outline
Meaning of development
Lifespan perspective on development ,growth ,development ,maturation and evolution
Factors influencing development
Context of development
Overview of developmental stages
Infancy
Childhood
Challenges of adolescence
Adulthood and old age
Meaning of Human Development
Human development is the process in which the changes occur in all the aspects of an organism
from conception to death.
It is a natural process for each and every child to grow. But it is observed that all children do not
grow in the similar fashion.
Some children‟s physical growth occur earlier than others, some Individual differences in the
development process Development depends on maturation and learning Development is predictable
Early development is more critical than later development
Development involves social expectation Development has potential hazards Happiness varies at
different periods of development are physically stronger than others, some are taller than others
and so on. So far as mental development is concerned, some children have better cognitive ability,
memory, reasoning, thinking ability etc. than others. All children also do not have same type of
intelligence.
Factors affecting Human development
1.Hereditary Factors:- Heredity exerts an influence on human development. The child carries
genetic endowments from his/her parents. It is genetically transmitted characteristics from one
generation to the next. The physical characteristics like height, weight, eye color etc. and
psychological characteristics such as intelligence, personality, creativity and so on are innately
determined and hereditary. The genetic code provides the base on which brain and body grow
and manifest in observable appearance and behavior
2) Environmental Factors:- Another important factor of human development is the environment
where an individual lives. The child lives and grows in his environment. Environment consists of
a wide range of stimuli and it provides the necessary input and experiential base for
development of the child. Enrichment or impoverishment of the environment would produce
differences in his abilities. For example, a child may have inherited music talent from his parents
through transmission of genes, but he may not excel in music field if he does not get the proper
environment and support to develop his innate ability.
Factors affecting Human development
3) Home Environment:- Home environment exerts tremendous influence on child's
understanding of the external world. It builds self-concept and prepares him to face the external
world. The child begins to acquire knowledge through interaction with parents and other family
members. During his early years of development, the behaviors of the child are modulated by
the home environment. The environment of the family can be supportive or stressful for the
child. If it is supportive, warm and harmonious environment, the child develops normally. In
unsupportive and stressful home environment, broken families or uncaring parents in the family,
children may develop as maladjusted persons
4) Cultural Factors:- Culture refers to a system of beliefs, attitudes and values that are
transmitted from one generation to the next. It is a product of past human behavior and is also a
shaper of future aspirations. The development of the child is influenced by family as well as by
the society. The child learns the habits, beliefs, attitude, skills and standards of judgment
through the socialization processes. The socialization processes of the child take place according
to the culture, customs and traditions of the society.
For example, greeting someone is a familiar experience but behavioral experiences are different
in different cultures. In Indian culture, people greet others by saying namaskar, folding hands or
lying down near the feet but in Western culture, people greet by handshake or kissing or saying
hello etc
5) Socioeconomic Status (SES):- Socioeconomic Status plays a pivotal role in human
development. The index of socioeconomic status is determined by parental education,
occupation and income. The children of low socioeconomic status may develop as mal-
nourished, suffer from lack of knowledge in many aspects and their normal development may
get hampered. The parenting in high socioeconomic status families would be different from low
socio-economic status families. Children of the high socioeconomic groups of the society get
better social opportunities, are nurtured with better nutrition, good medical treatment and are
exposed to more intellectual stimulation than low socioeconomic group.
Normative influences:- Normative influences occur in a similar way for majority of people in a
particular group. These influences may be biological or environmental. For example, biological
events like sexual maturity or deterioration in old age. Environmental events, like entering the
school at about 6 yrs of age, parenthood etc. have the same influences on individuals. Most of
the people of the same age, at same place and time and generation have common biological
and environmental influences such as floods, famines and other natural disasters. Non-
normative influences include the unusual life events in an individual‟s life. For example, death of
a parent when a child is young or birth defects etc
7) Education and Training:- Each child is equipped with certain abilities which need to be
nurtured through proper education and training. Therefore, the first and foremost step is to
identify and recognize the ability of the child and the next step is to provide adequate
opportunities to develop the same. If proper identification of the ability is not possible and
adequate facilities are not available to the child, then his innate ability may not be developed.
Thus, adequate education and training have influence on human development.
8 stages of development
1. Prenatal stage
• 2. Infancy (0-2 years old)
• 3. Early childhood (3-6 years old)
• 4. Middle childhood (7-12 years old)
• 5. Adolescence (13-19 years old)
• 6. Young adulthood (20-35 years old)
• 7. Middle adulthood (36-49 years old)
• 8. Late adulthood/Old age (50 years old- Death)
Developmental stages
Developmental stages of human beings refer to the distinct periods of growth and maturation
that individuals go through from birth to adulthood. These stages are characterized by specific
physical, cognitive, social, and emotional changes. Here are some notes on the major
developmental stages:
1. Prenatal Stage:
This stage begins at conception and continues until birth.
Major developments occur, including cell division, organ formation, and growth.
The three trimesters are the germinal, embryonic, and fetal stages.
Prenatal development is also affected by maternal characteristics which include mother’s age,
nutrition and emotional state, disease or infection carried by the mother can adversely affect
prenatal development .
Another source of threat to prenatal development is teratogens- environmental agents that
cause deviations in normal development that can lead to serious abnormalities or death .
Common teratogens include drugs(marijuana, heroin, cocaine) alcohol, tobacco etc. by women
during pregnancy may have harmful effects on the fetus and increase the frequency of
congenital abnormalities.
Radiations and certain chemicals near industrial areas can cause permanent change in the genes
. Environmental pollutants and toxic wastes like carbon monoxide ,mercury and lead are sources
of danger to the unborn child
Throughout the prenatal stage, there is also a series of important processes that support
development, including cell differentiation, migration, and apoptosis (programmed cell death).
Additionally, the placenta plays a vital role in supplying oxygen and nutrients to the developing
fetus and removing waste products.

It's worth noting that factors such as maternal health, nutrition, exposure to toxins, and genetic
factors can significantly influence prenatal development.
Infancy
This stage spans from birth to around 2 years of age.
Rapid physical growth and development take place.
Infants start to develop motor skills, language abilities, and social bonds.
They explore the world through their senses and gradually gain independence.
During the infancy stage, which spans from birth to approximately 2 years of age, significant
developments occur as infants rapidly grow and acquire new skills. Here are some notes on the
major developments that take place during this stage:
Physical Development:

Rapid physical growth occurs during infancy.

Infants gain weight and height, with their bodies becoming more proportionate.
Motor skills develop, starting with reflexes and progressing to voluntary movements.
Infants learn to lift their heads, roll over, sit up, crawl, and eventually walk.
Fine motor skills develop, allowing infants to grasp objects, manipulate toys, and feed themselves.
infancy
Cognitive Development:

Cognitive abilities expand rapidly during infancy.

Infants begin to explore and understand the world through their senses.
They learn cause-and-effect relationships by observing and interacting with their environment.
Object permanence develops, allowing infants to understand that objects continue to exist even
when out of sight.
Infants start to imitate actions and engage in simple problem-solving.
infancy
Language Development:
Language skills begin to emerge during infancy.
Infants start making cooing sounds, babbling, and imitating speech sounds.
They gradually learn to understand and respond to simple words and gestures.
Vocabulary expands as infants acquire new words and develop receptive language skills.
Towards the end of infancy, infants may start producing their first recognizable words.
Social and Emotional Development:
Social interactions and emotional bonds form during infancy.
Infants develop attachments to their caregivers, typically starting with primary caregivers.
They engage in social smiling, showing preference for familiar faces.
Infants display a range of emotions, including joy, sadness, anger, and fear.
They begin to understand and respond to social cues, such as facial expressions and tone of voice.
Sensory and Perceptual Development:

Infants' sensory abilities continue to develop and refine.

They can see and distinguish between different colors, shapes, and patterns.
Hearing improves, and infants become more responsive to voices and environmental sounds.
Taste and smell preferences develop, influencing food preferences and exploration.
Infants explore the world through tactile sensations, experiencing different textures and
temperatures
infancy
It's important to note that developmental milestones can vary among infants, and the pace of
development can differ. Environmental factors, caregiver responsiveness, and early experiences
play a crucial role in shaping infants' development during this stage.
Early Childhood
Early childhood typically covers ages 2 to 6 years.
Language and cognitive abilities expand rapidly.
Motor skills continue to develop, enabling greater physical exploration.
Children become more independent, start forming friendships, and develop a sense of self.
It's important to note that each child's physical development progresses at their own pace.
Factors such as genetics, environmental stimulation, opportunities for physical activity, and
overall health can influence the rate and extent of physical development during early childhood.
Early childhood
1.Gross Motor Skills:
1. Gross motor skills involve the coordination and control of large muscle groups.
2. Running, jumping, hopping, and skipping become more coordinated and proficient.
3. Children develop better balance and coordination, enabling them to ride tricycles and eventually
bicycles with training wheels.
4. They engage in active play, such as climbing, swinging, and playing sports, which further enhance
their motor skills.

2.Fine Motor Skills:

1. Fine motor skills involve the control and coordination of small muscle groups, particularly in the
hands and fingers.
2. Children refine their hand-eye coordination, allowing them to manipulate objects with greater
precision.
 3They learn to use utensils, hold and control pencils or crayons, and engage in activities that require
hand dexterity, such as drawing, coloring, and building with blocks.
4.Gradually, they develop more refined fine motor skills, like tying shoelaces, buttoning clothes, and
using scissors.

3. Strength and Endurance:

1. During early childhood, children's muscles continue to strengthen and develop.
2. They gain increased strength and endurance, allowing them to engage in physical activities for more
extended periods.
3. Climbing, running, playing on playground equipment, and participating in games or sports help build
muscular strength and endurance.
Early childhood
Coordination and Balance:

Children's coordination and balance improve significantly during early childhood.

They become more adept at coordinating movements and controlling their bodies in space.
Balance improves, enabling them to walk on narrow surfaces, stand on one foot, and perform
more complex movements.
Fine-tuning of hand-eye coordination enhances their ability to manipulate objects accurately.
Early childhood
Body Awareness and Spatial Orientation:

Children develop a greater understanding of their own bodies and spatial relationships.
They gain a sense of body awareness, understanding body parts, and their capabilities.
Spatial orientation skills improve as children learn to navigate their surroundings, judge
distances, and interact with objects and people in their environment.
Early childhood
Cognitive development:
Piaget’s stage of cognitive development:
Stage Approximate age characteristics

Sensorimotor 0-2 Infant explores the world by

coordinating sensory
experiences with physical
actions
Preoperational 2-7 Symbolic thought
develops ,object
permanence is established .
The child cannot coordinate
between different objects
Concrete operational 7-11 The child can reason logically
Early childhood
Cognitive development:
Piaget’s stage of cognitive development:
Stage Approximate age characteristics

Concrete operational 7-11 The child can reason logically

about concrete events and
classify objects into different
sets .is able to perform
reversible mental operations
Formal operational 11-15 years The adolescent can apply
logic more abstractly.
Hypothetical thinking
develops
Middle childhood

Middle childhood encompasses ages 6 to 12 years.

Children become more focused on school, learning, and acquiring new skills.
Cognitive abilities, such as memory and logical reasoning, continue to improve.
Social relationships become more complex, and peer interactions become influential.
Adolescence:

Adolescence:

Adolescence begins around 12 or 13 years and extends into the late teens.
Significant physical changes occur, including puberty and sexual maturation.
Cognitive abilities advance, including abstract thinking and planning.
Identity formation becomes a major focus, and peer relationships are crucial.
Emotional and social challenges may arise as individuals seek autonomy.
Early Adulthood:

Early adulthood typically spans from the late teens to the 30s.
Individuals establish independence, pursue higher education, and enter the workforce.
Personal and professional identities develop, and relationships become more serious.
Physical growth stabilizes, and individuals take on increasing responsibilities.
Middle Adulthood:

Middle adulthood usually covers ages 40 to 65.

Individuals may experience career advancements and increased financial stability.
Physical changes, such as aging and menopause, may occur.
Focus shifts towards generativity, nurturing relationships, and personal achievement.
Late Adulthood:

Late adulthood begins around age 65 and extends until the end of life.
Physical abilities may decline, but wisdom and life experience increase.
Individuals may retire, spend time with family, and pursue leisure activities.
Emotional well-being and maintaining social connections become important.
Major theoretical perspectives of Human
development
Psychodynamic:
Freud’s Psychosexual Stages
• Psychoanalytic - Observations and notes that he made about life histories of his mentally
disturbed patients
• Hypnosis, free association, dream analysis
• We have goals or motives that must be satisfied
Psychodynamic
Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis, proposed a theory of psychodynamic
development that consists of several stages. These stages are characterized by the development of
the individual's personality and the resolution of specific conflicts. Here are some notes on
Freud's psychodynamic stages:
1.Oral Stage (Birth to 1 year):
1. The focus of pleasure and conflict is on the mouth, lips, and tongue.
2. Infants seek oral gratification through activities such as sucking, biting, and tasting.
3. The major conflict in this stage is weaning, which involves the transition from breast or bottle
feeding to solid foods.
4. Fixation at this stage can lead to oral fixation behaviors in adulthood, such as overeating, smoking,
or nail-biting.
Psychodynamic
Anal Stage (1 to 3 years):

The focus of pleasure and conflict shifts to the anus and the control of bodily functions.
Children experience pleasure in retaining and expelling feces during toilet training.
The major conflict in this stage is toilet training and the child's desire for autonomy and control.
Fixation at this stage can result in anal-retentive behaviors (rigidity, orderliness) or anal-
expulsive behaviors (messiness, defiance) in adulthood.
Psychodynamic
Phallic Stage (3 to 6 years):

The focus of pleasure and conflict moves to the genital region.

Children develop unconscious sexual desires and attraction toward the opposite-sex parent,
known as the Oedipus or Electra complex.
This stage involves the resolution of the complex, identification with the same-sex parent, and
the development of the superego (internalized moral values).
Fixation at this stage can lead to difficulties in forming healthy relationships or sexual and gender
identity issues.
Psychodynamic
Latency Stage (6 years to puberty):

The sexual impulses become less prominent, and the focus shifts to social and intellectual
pursuits.
Children develop relationships with same-sex peers and engage in activities such as school,
sports, and hobbies.
There is a relative period of sexual calm and consolidation of earlier psychosexual development.
Psychodynamic
Genital Stage (Puberty and beyond):

The focus of pleasure and conflict returns to the genitals, with an emphasis on mature sexual
relationships.
Individuals develop the capacity for mature love, intimacy, and healthy sexual relationships.
The resolution of earlier conflicts and the successful navigation of previous stages contribute to
healthy adult development.
Psychodynamic
It's important to note that Freud's psychodynamic stages have been subject to criticism and are
not widely accepted in contemporary developmental psychology. However, they played a
significant role in shaping early theories of human development and continue to be influential in
understanding the complexities of the human psyche.
Freud’s Psychosexual Stages • Biological Instincts • Eros ( life instinct) – helps the child to
survive; directs life sustaining activities such as respiration, eating, sex and the fulfillment of all
other bodily needs
• Thanatos (death instinct) – set of destructive forces present in all human being ex. arson,
murder, war, masochism
Concept of fixation
According to Sigmund Freud, fixation is a concept within his psychoanalytic theory that refers to
an unresolved psychological conflict or an attachment to a particular psychosexual stage of
development.
Fixation occurs when an individual's needs or desires are either under gratified or over gratified
during a specific stage, leading to a persistent focus of pleasure-seeking or patterns of behavior
associated with that stage. Here are some key notes on the concept of fixation as explained by
Freud:
1.Role of Psychosexual Development:
1. Fixation is closely tied to Freud's psychosexual stages of development, which involve the
progression of libidinal energy (sexual energy) through different erogenous zones of the body.
2. When there is an unresolved conflict or fixation at a particular stage, it can influence an individual's
psychological development and personality traits.
Impact on Personality:
•Fixation can contribute to the formation of personality traits or behaviors associated with a
particular psychosexual stage.
•For example, if a person experiences fixation in the oral stage, they may develop traits such as
dependency, oral aggression, or an excessive need for oral gratification.
•Fixation can also influence defense mechanisms and coping strategies that individuals use to
manage unresolved conflicts
3.Consequences of Fixation:
1. Fixation can result in the individual being stuck or "fixated" at a particular stage of development,
causing a persistent focus on seeking gratification or exhibiting behaviors associated with that stage.
2. These fixations may manifest as psychological or behavioral patterns that persist into adulthood and
can impact relationships, emotional well-being, and overall personality functioning.

Connection to Unconscious Mind:

•Fixation, like many concepts in psychoanalysis, operates at the unconscious level, meaning
individuals may not be aware of their fixation or its influence on their thoughts and actions.
•Psychoanalytic therapy aims to bring unconscious fixations to conscious awareness, allowing
individuals to work through and resolve unresolved conflicts
Resolution and Growth:
•The resolution of fixation involves revisiting and resolving the conflicts associated with the stage
in which fixation occurred.
•Through therapeutic interventions, individuals can gain insight, process unresolved issues, and
move toward healthier and more adaptive ways of functioning
It's important to note that Freud's concept of fixation has been subject to criticism and is not
universally accepted in contemporary psychological theories. Nonetheless, the concept has
played a significant role in shaping the field of psychoanalysis and understanding the potential
impact of early experiences on later psychological development