Structural Elements

STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS:IDENTIFICATION,
ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE AND SIGNIFICANCE
BY
DIDI CHEKWUBE NNAMDI
PAU-UI-0704
DEPARTMENT OF PETROLEUM GEOSCIENCES

PAULESI, IBADAN, NIGERIA
DATE: 15-07-2022
PRESENTATION OUTLINE
• MEANING OF STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
• IDENTIFICATION
• ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
• SIGNIFICANCE
• CONCLUSION
MEANING OF STRUCTURAL
ELEMENTS
• STRUCTURE= FORM OR SHAPE.
• ELEMENTS= COMPONENTS, CONSTITUENT, PART, SECTION, PORTION ETC
• STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS ARE THE COMPONENTS THAT DEFINES A FORM.
• WHAT IS A STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY ?

IDENTIFICATION
• Origin
• Stress
• Strain
• Forms
• Orientation or attitude
• Scale
• Movement
• Mineral orientations
• Rock types
• Time
• Angle
• Surface Trace
1.ORIGIN
• Divergent plate
boundaries
• Covergent plate
boundaries
• Transform
boundaries
PLATE BOUNDARIES
h3p://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Plates_tect2_en.svg/2000px[Plates_tect2_en.svg.png&
2.STRESS
• Compressive stress
• Tensile stress
• Shear stress
STRESS DIRECTIONS
3A.STRAIN
• Elastic strain
• Plastic (ductile)
• Brittle
 Elastic Behavior – straight line segments (blue)

 Stresses greater than elastic limit (red)
STRAIN BEHAVIOR
3B.FORM
• Strain rate
M
• Rock type
• Temperature
N
• Pressure
 M:Brittle deformation
 N: Ductile deformation
• Depth
4A.ORIENTATION OR ATTITUDE
• Strike
• Dip
• Dip amount
N
4B.ORIENTATION OR ATTITUDE
• Thrust fault
• Lag fault
• Detachment fault
• Lystric fault
ARRAYS OF NORMAL FAULTS

4.ORIENTATION OR ATTITUDE
• Dip
• Strike
• Dip amount
N
5.SCALE
Q
• Microscopic Rock fabric; mineral
alignment (John et
al.,2020)
• Mesoscopic (outcrop)
• Mega or macroscopic
(map)
S
R
Unconformity at Whale Cove, Nova

Fold at Bramber, Nova Scotia(John et al., 2020) Scotia(John et al.,2020).
6.MOVEMENTS
A
• Joint
B
• Normal fault
• Reverse fault
C
• Strike slip fault

Columnar joints,
Scotland.
• Oblique fault Fault, Big Horn Mountains, USA.
7.MINERAL ORIENTATION
• FABRIC: rock properties varies with
direction. A
Primary fabric (sedimentary bed)

Secondary fabric (igneous flow
banding)
Sedimentary foliation: bedding and fissility, Arisaig, Scotland.
• ORIENTATION
Foliation=planar fabric
Lineation= linear fabric B
Stretching lineation and flattening foliation, deformed

conglomerate, Gansu China(John et al.,2020)
8. ROCK TYPES
(Sedimentary structures and Non-Sedimentary structures)
• Sedimentary structures
Unconformity
Pinchout
Truncation
Mud crack
Graded beddings
Crossbeds
Planer beds
Ripple marks
Cavities
Biotubations
Sedimentary structures,USA (Naseer,2018)
Load structures
9. TIME
• Synformational structures • Primary structures
• Post formational structures • Secondary structures
10A. ANGLE
• FOLD
Inter-limb angle
Gentle 180-1700
Open 170-900
Tight 90-100
Isoclinal 10-00
Ptygmatic or fan <00
Fold Profile (John et al., 2020)

10A. ANGLE
• ANGULAR FOLD
 Inter-limb angle
Chevron fold 600
kink 1200
• PARALLEL OR CONCENTRIC FOLD
 Strong rock are interlayered with very
weak rock
 The strong layers may have nearly
constant thickness around fold
hinges.
 The inner and outer arcs are parallel. Fold Profile
(a) Parallel folds produced by buckling. (b) Similar folds. (c) Chevron folds. (d) Kink folds
(John et al.,2020)
10B. ANGLE
• FOLD PLUNGE
Hingline plunge
Subhorizontal 0-100
Gently plunging 10-300
Moderately plunging 30-600
Steeply plunging 60-800
Subvertical 80-900
Fold Profile
10C. ANGLE
• FOLD AXIAL SURFACE
 Strike and dip of the axial
surface
Recubent 0-100
Gently inclined 10-300
Moderately inclined 30-600
Steeply inclined 60-800
Upright 80-900
Fold Profile
11A. SURFACE TRACE
• HARMONIC FOLD
 Same inflection surface
trace, crest surface trace,
trough surface trace
• DIS-HARMONIC FOLD
Irregular inflection
surface trace, crest
surface trace, trough
surface trace
Fold Profile(John et al.,2020)
11B. SURFACE TRACE
• ENVELOPE FOLD
 Multiple folds are
observed in the same
folded surface.
• PARASITIC FOLD
Fold Profile
ECONIMIC IMPORTANCE
• Environment of Deposition
• Paleo structural or tectonic
evolution
• Trap, Seal, Migration pathways
• Conduits for minerals
• Structural failure
• Barrier for engineering
construction
• Home for animals
• Shocks
Petroleum Trap (Ahaneku,2016)
• Structural analysis
SIGNIFICANCE
• Petroleum Geology
• Engineering Geology
• Hydrogeology
• Mining and Mineral
Explorations
Gold Vein(https://www.geologyin.com/2014/11/veins-and-hydrothermal-deposits.html)
CONCLUSION
• Structural geology is simply the study of rock
forms, origin, stress, and its benefits to
humanity.
FAULT MAPPING TECHNIQUES
BY
PAU-UI-0704

DATE: 22-07-2022
• INTRODUCTION
• TYPES OF FAULT MAPPING TECHNIQUES
• ITS ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
• CONCLUSION
INTRODUCTION
• MAPPING TECHNIQUES
Surface Mapping
Outcrop description
Remote Sensing(DEM)
Subsurface Mapping
Well log interpretation
Seismic interpretation(Refle-Refra)
Core data analysis
Borehole Imaging
Magnetic data analysis
Surface Mapping Technique
Outcrop description
• Dip slip fault A
Normal fault (OYE-Stratigraphy)
Reverse fault (ROC-Stratigraphy)
Oblique fault
• Strike slip fault B C
Dextral
Sinistral
FIG.1: (A) FRACTURE,(B) NORMAL FAULT, (C) REVERSE FAULT(Sem,2021)

Outcrop description
HANGING WALL
HANGING WALL
FOOT WALL
FOOT WALL
FIG. 2: NORMAL FAULT(Sem,2021) FIG.3: REVERSE FAULT(Sites.pitt.edu)

Outcrop description
RIGHT LATERAL FAULT

LEFT LATERAL FAULT
FIG.4:SINISTRAL STRIKE SLIP FAULT(Sem,2021) FIG.5:DEXTRAL STRIKE SLIP FAULT(Sem,2021)

Remote Sensing(DEM)
What is Remote Sensing?

GIS:Geographic data
database plus software tools
for managing, analyzing, and
visualizing
DEM: is a specialized
database that represents the
relief of a surface between
points of known elevation
Fig.6: (A)Digital elevation model (DEM), (B) Fault and lineament map and (C) Rose
diagram of faults and lineaments of the southern Sierra Nevada(Nadin, 2010)
Subsurface Mapping Technique
Well log interpretation B
A
Fig.7A: Stratigraphic correlation and fault Fig.7B: Wireline well log cross-section F to F' in two wells on
interpretation of wells in northern Bornu Basin both sides of Fault (Osmond, 2016)
(Olabode, 2015)
Seismic interpretation
A B
D E
Fig.8A: Interpreted seismic section showing Fig.8B: Structural depths maps of reservoirs (sand D,
down-to-basin fault and graben crestal fault sand, E, and sand F), (Nwaezeapu et al., 2019)
(Nwaezeapu et al., 2019)
Core data analysis
“Accurate orientation of
fractures in drill cores can be
critical for understanding
neotectonic stress, structural
history, and reservoir
productivity (Davison and
Haszeldine, 1984;Nelson et
al., 1987)”
Fig.9:High-resolution (5 pixels/mm) corescan

image of well-bedded Devonian sandstone
showing reverse fault (Paulsen et al., 2002)
Borehole Imaging(Micro resistivity
Imaging)
• Only faults with displacement less
than wellbore diameter is observable
on image logs
• Once the image gathered from

wellbore is “unwrapped” and
displayed from 0° to 360°, fault
crossing the borehole appears as
sinusoid.
• The geographic north, the peaks and

troughs of the sinusoids are related
to the dip and azimuth of the fault,
Fig.10:Typical response of fault and its parameters on
respectively.
(Formation Micro Imager)FMI logs(Hosseini, 2015)
Borehole Imaging(Micro resistivity
Imaging)
B
A
Fig.11: Typical response of (A) Normal and (B) Reverse fault FMI logs(Hosseini, 2015)
Magnetic data analysis
A B
Fig.12:Structural interpretation of magnetic data. (A) Extracted Magnetic basement fault on the
magnetic using FVD method. The trend of basement fault is NW-SE. (B) Basement fault Rose diagram
that shows direction of fault trend (NW)(Nabilou,2018)
Magnetic data analysis cont’d
Fig.13: Structural interpretation of magnetic data. (a) Represents U.S. Geological Survey 30-m digital
raster elevation data (b) Total magnetic intensity (TMI ) and residual data are shown as stacked profiles in
(c) after removal of mean values for each profile. Residual TMI data for profiles A, D, G, and I are compared
to forward model curves
Gravity data analysis
Fig14: Relative variation in observed gravity readings over different geological structures (Tilley, 2013).
ECONIMIC IMPORTANCE
• Environment of Deposition
• Paleo structural or tectonic
evolution
• Trap, Seal, Migration pathways
• Conduits for minerals
• Structural failure
• Barrier for engineering
construction
• Home for animals
• Shocks
Fig.15: Petroleum Trap (Ahaneku,2016)
• Structural analysis
CONCLUSION
• Fault is a discontinuity that has appreciable
displacement.
• Fault can be micro or macro.
• Fault can be mapped with various techniques
• Fault is an important element in Petroleum
system
• Fault can cause hazards
THANK YOU FOR YOUR TIME
• ANY QUESTION FOR CLARIFICATION ?
THANK YOU
SEAL INTEGRITY
BY
PAU-UI-0704

DATE: 28-07-2022
• INTRODUCTION
• TYPES OF SEAL INTEGRITY
• HOW TO MEASURE SEAL INTEGRITY
• SIGNIFICANCE
• CONCLUSION
INTRODUCTION
• WHAT IS A SEAL ?
• Mechanical properties of a seal rock
• Function of lithology and regional stresses
• Structural permeability
• Fluid conducting fractures
TYPES OF SEAL INTEGRITY
• Lithological seal integrity
All impemeable rocks
• Fault seal integrity
All impemeable faults
SEAL INTEGRITY MEASUREMENT
• Laboratory
• Core examination
• Bore-hole imaging
• Petrographic studies
• Petrophysical properties
PETROPHYSICAL PROPERTIES
• CASE STUDY: Seal Integrity for a Hydrocarbon Reservoir in Niger
Delta Basin using brittleness index of the seal interval
• Method
Elastic properties of the seal interval
I. Young’s modulus and
II. Poisson’s ratio
HOW ?
I. By measuring the p- and s-wave velocity from well logs obtained
from a field in the Niger Delta
EXPECTED RESULT FOR GOOD SEAL, BRITTLENESS INDEX<0.6

(Mathia,2016)
REQUIRED FORMULA AND
PARAMETERS
Brittleness index
• BI=0.5-
• Where
• BI= Brittleness index
• 𝐸 = Young’s modulus at each depth location along well path.
• 𝜐 = Poisson’s ratio at each depth location along well path.
• 𝐸min = Minimum vertical Young’s modulus in interval of
• interest
• 𝐸max = Maximum vertical Young’s modulus in interval of interest
• 𝜐min = Minimum vertical Poisson’s ratio in interval ofinterest
PARAMETERS
Dynamic Young’s Modulus
• Edyn =
• Edyn= Dynamic Young’s Modulus,

• P= Bulk density, kg/m3
• Vs=S-wave velocity km/s2
• Vp=P-wave velocity km/s2
• Vp is gotten from inverse of interval transit time

of sonic log
• Vs is gotten from Greenberg and Castagna

correlation of shale
Vs=(0.7696Vp-867.35)m/s
PARAMETERS
Dynamic Poisson ratio
• dyn =
• dyn= Dynamic Poisson ratio

• Vs=S-wave velocity km/s2
• Vp=P-wave velocity km/s2
• Vp is gotten from inverse of interval transit time

of sonic log
• Vs is gotten from Greenberg and Castagna

correlation of shale
Vs=(0.7696Vp-867.35)m/s
DATA INTERPRETATION
Table I: Computed values of BRI(Onengiyeofori,2020)
DEPTH SONI P-WAVE S-WAVE YOUNG POISS BRITTL
DENSIT CTRA VELOC VELOCI 'SMOD ON'S ENESS
Y NSIT ITY,Vp TY, ULUS, RATIO, INDEX,
TIME Vs Edyn
dyn BRI
(𝑓𝑡) (Kg/m3 ) (𝜇𝑠/𝑓t) (m/s) (m/s)
11120.00 2189.00 88.98 3425.53 1769.25 18063.39 0.31809 0.23
11125.00 2192.00 90.10 3382.95 1736.47 17464.37 0.32113 0.22
11130.00 2240.00 90.86 3354.65 1714.69 17428.74 0.32317 0.21
11135.00 2241.00 88.96 3426.30 1769.84 18504.11 0.31804 0.24
11140.00 2292.00 88.35 3449.96 1788.05 19292.08 0.31637 0.26
11145.00 2243.00 87.60 3479.49 1810.78 19332.22 0.31429 0.26
DEPTH OF 5 FT INTERVAL
Delineated Reservoir and Seal intervals
DATA INTERPRETATION
SERIOUS ISSUE
Table 1: Computed values of BRI (Onengiyeofori,2020) HOW DO WE CONVERT (𝜇𝑠/𝑓t) TO
DEPTH SONI P-WAVE S-WAVE YOUNG POISS BRITTL (m/s) ?
DENSIT CTRA VELOCI VELOC 'SMOD ON'S ENESS
Y NSIT TY,Vp ITY, ULUS, RATIO, INDEX,
TIME Vs Edyn IFT= 0.3048 METERS
dyn BRI
𝜇=10-6
(𝑓𝑡) (Kg/m3 ) (𝜇𝑠/𝑓t) (m/s) (m/s) Vp=1/(𝜇𝑠/𝑓t) = (𝑓t/𝜇𝑠)
11120.00 2189.00 88.98 3425.48 1766.85 18063.39 0.31809 0.23
11125.00 2192.00 90.10 3382.95 1736.47 17464.37 0.32113 0.22 SOLVE THIS
11130.00 2240.00 90.86 3354.65 1714.69 17428.74 0.32317 0.21
88.98𝜇𝑠/𝑓t to Vp (m/s) ?
11135.00 2241.00 88.96 3426.30 1769.84 18504.11 0.31804 0.24 Vp= ==3425.48m/s
11140.00 2292.00 88.35 3449.96 1788.05 19292.08 0.31637 0.26 Vs=(0.7696Vp-867.35)m/s
11145.00 2243.00 87.60 3479.49 1810.78 19332.22 0.31429 0.26
Vs=(0.769×3425.48-867.35)m/s=1766.85
DATA INTERPRETATION
SERIOUS ISSUE
Table I: Computed values of BRI(Onengiyeofori,2020) TAKE THE MEAN OF BRI TO GET THE
DEPTH SONI P-WAVE S-WAVE YOUNG POISS BRITTL FINAL ANSWER TO THE PROBLEM
DENSIT CTRA VELOCI VELOC 'SMOD ON'S ENESS
Y NSIT TY,Vp ITY, ULUS, RATIO, INDEX,
TIME Vs Edyn
dyn BRI
BRI==0.23
(𝑓𝑡) (Kg/m3 ) (𝜇𝑠/𝑓t) (m/s) (m/s)
11120.00 2189.00 88.98 3425.48 1766.85 18063.39 0.31809 0.23
11125.00 2192.00 90.10 3382.95 1736.47 17464.37 0.32113 0.22 WHAT IS YOUR OBSERVATION FROM
11130.00 2240.00 90.86 3354.65 1714.69 17428.74 0.32317 0.21 THE BRI RESULT OF THE SEAL ?
11135.00 2241.00 88.96 3426.30 1769.84 18504.11 0.31804 0.24
11140.00 2292.00 88.35 3449.96 1788.05 19292.08 0.31637 0.26

THE BRI<0.6, THAT MEANS THE SEAL
11145.00 2243.00 87.60 3479.49 1810.78 19332.22 0.31429 0.26 INTEGRITY IS GOOD
SIGNIFICANCE
• Trap
• Reservoir
• Cost
• Fluid transport
• Timing
• Potential pressure
CONCLUSION
• Seal integrity depends on the rock properties and the

stress that acted on it over time
• It can be determined using Sonic and Density well log

suits
• Seal integrity could be applied to both impermable rocks

and faults in an oil field.
• It is crucial in oil and gas industry in order to avoid

drilling dry wells
• QUESTIONS FOR CLARIFICATIONS ?

FAULT SEAL ANALYSIS
BY
PAU-UI-0704

DATE: 5-08-2022
• INTRODUCTION
• TYPES OF FAULT SEAL ANLYSIS
• HOW TO DETERMINE FAULT SEALS
• SIGNIFICANCE
• CONCLUSION
INTRODUCTION
• WHAT IS A FAULT SEAL ?
• Mechanical properties of a seal rock
• Function of lithology and regional stresses
• Structural permeability
• Fluid conducting fractures
TYPES OF SEAL ANALYSIS
• Lithological seal analysis
All impemeable rocks
• Fault seal analysis
All impemeable faults
HOW TO DETERMINE FAULT SEAL
• Juxtaposition
Triangular method
• Formation processes of fault
Shear Guage Ratio
Shear Smear Factor
• Reactivation surfaces
Stress Analysis
Slip tendency
FAULT JUXTAPOSITION (TRIANGULAR METHOD)
 Juxtaposed blocks
 Permeable vs Impermeable
 Permeable vs PermeableModel: Juxtaposition
 diagrams or “Allan
Impermeable vs Impermeable
 Fault length maps” (Allan, 1989)
 Micro
 Macro
 Fault displacement
 Long
 Short
 Fault thickness
 High
 low Fig.1: Block diagram illustrating across-fault lithological
juxtaposition (after Knipe, 1997).
FORMATION PROCESSES OF FAULT SEAL
During the deformation of fault rocks, there can be two competing compaction
mechanisms which are the mechanical compaction and chemical compaction.
Faults developed in impure sandstones (clay content of 15-25%) experienced enhanced chemical
compaction (e.g., grain-contact quartz dissolution), whereas faults in clay rich sandstones (clay
content of >25%) are dominated by mechanical compaction
Five types of fault seal processes have been

identified, which are:
1. Clay/phyllosilicate smearing;
2. Cementation;
3. Cataclasis;
4. Diffusive mass transfer by pressure solution or
quartz cementation; and
5. Porosity reduction by disaggregation or mixing.
FORMATION PROCESSES OF FAULT SEAL CONT’D
• CLAY/PHYLLOSILICATE SMEARING (ASI)
 Abrasion of clay/phyllosilicate when it is moving past sandstones;

 Shearing and ductile deformation of beds (with high clay/phyllosilicate content, e.g. shale or
mudstone beds) between hanging wall and footwall;
 Injection of clay/phyllosilicate materials during fluidisation.
• CLAY/PHYLLOSILICATE SMEARING PARAMETERS
 Sedimentary lithification state,

 Effective stress,
 Confining pressure,
 Strain rate and the
 Mineralogy (Fisher and Knipe, 1998).
• CEMENTATION
 Cemented faults or fractures are product of cementation processes along fault zones.
 Cemented microstructures aids in studying the mechanisms and timing of the cementation
processes
• MECHANISM
 As faults/fractures may perform as conduits for fluid flow, the flow behaviour of faults/fractures
is sensitive to quartz precipitation because within the fault zones there are both quartz sources
(from dissolution) and nucleation sites for potential cementation.
 The source for cementation can be internal or external.
• WHAT FAVOURS CEMENTATION ?
 Small concentrations of clay/phyllosilicate minerals in sandstones increase the potential of

cementation as the clay/phyllosilicate minerals can act as a local source for cementation
 High clay/phyllosilicate contents can lead to the clay/phyllosilicate-coating on the quartz grains,
which decreases the effective quartz grain surface area available for cementation
 WHAT IS THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE ABOVE ILLUSTRATION ?

• CATACLASIS
 Cataclasis involves grain fracturing and can reduce the porosity and the permeability as well as
increase the capillary threshold pressure of rocks within fault zones
 Cataclasis presents different micro-deformation mechanisms depending on the burial depth.

 Cataclasis in sediments at shallow depths is dominated by grain spalling and flaking.
 Cataclasis at deeper depths is primarily characterized by transgranular fracturing and grain
crushing.
 The grain sorting within cataclasites is becoming poorer by grain fracturing and chipping at early
stage, and
 The following predominant chipping and crushing could enhance the grain sorting with time
• WHAT PREVENTS CATACLASIS?
 The concentration of clay/phyllosilicate materials in host rocks can inhibit the probability of
occurrence of cataclasis.
 Sandstones with high clay/phyllosilicate content are likely to be resistant to the cataclasis during
faulting deformation, as the clay/phyllosilicate-rich sandstones tend to deform more easily by grain
sliding and rotation rather than by grain fracturing.
• DIFFUSIVE MASS TRNSFER BY PRESSURE SOLUTION AND QAURTZ CEMENTATION
 Diffusive mass transfer is a process of mass transfer from high-pressure sites to low-pressure
sites, happens when materials are dissolved at the grain contacts and then transported by
diffusion to free pore spaces where the dissolved materials reprecipitate
 Diffusive mass transfer is actually a redistribution of soluble materials from their original sites
with high pressure, by means of dissolution, transport and reprecipitation.
 The extent of diffusive mass transfer depends on clay/phyllosilicate content and its distribution
at the time of deformation
• HINT FOR CLEAR UNDERSTANDING
1. PRESENCE OF CLAY/PHYLLOSILICATE FAVOURS PRESSURE SOLUTION

2. PRESENCE OF QUARTZ FAVOURS CEMENTATION AND CATACLASIS
• EXAMPLE FOR CLEAR UNDERSTANDING
1. Clean sandstones with clay/phyllosilicate contents of <5%, the fault zones experience enhanced
quartz cementation within fault zones with no enhanced pressure solution.
2. Clean sandstones with moderate clay/phyllosilicate content of 5-15% indicates evidence for
both enhanced pressure solution and quartz cementation.
3. Impure sandstones with high clay/phyllosilicate contents of 15-25%, the fault zones can
experience enhanced pressure solution but no extensive enhanced quartz cementation
EXCEPTION
• Impure sandstones with clay/phyllosilicate content of >25%, the porosity and permeability of the
fault zones may not be significantly affected by either pressure solution or quartz cementation
• POROSITY REDUCTION BY DISAGGREGATION AND MIXING
 The reorganisation of distribution of detrital grains and clay/phyllosilicate minerals without a

universal reduction of grain size.
 The sedimentary units that are buried at shallow depths tend to experience disaggregation and
mixing to reduce the rock porosity.
CONDITION FOR THIS TO OCCUR

• This fault process is common in sedimentary units that are unconsolidated or unlithified, as in
this situation there is enough space for grains and clay/phyllosilicate minerals to be
redistributed during faulting deformation
• POROSITY REDUCTION BY DISAGGREGATION AND MIXING
 The distribution of both detrital grains and clay/phyllosilicate minerals can be heterogeneous
when initially deposited and then becomes more homogeneous after the disaggregation and
mixing during faulting deformation, thus altering permeability pathways
EXCEPTION
• For clean sandstones, because the grain size and grain sorting of the fault rock do not change
considerably after the reorganization of detrital grains, the fault rock porosity and permeability
are not changed significantly
• Formation processes of fault

Shear Guage Ratio
Shear Smear Factor
Fig.2: Shale Gouge Ratio for a sequence of variable
SGR values > 0.2 have a higher thicknesses (Tt) and Vshale values (Vshi)
chance of seal (Childs et al.,
1997; Yielding et al., 1997)
Cataclasites dominate seal

Disaggregation zones are developed in development in clean sandstones
poorly lithified rocks containing<40% containing <15% clay content at the
clay/phyllosilicate minerals (not sealing time of deformation
fault)
FAULT REACTIVATION SURFACE ANALYSIS
• Faults that have been critically stressed or reactivated following hydrocarbon charge
are more likely to act as conduits for fluid flow (Sibson, 1994).
• Consequently, a fault prone to reactivation may provide a poor baffle to flow despite
having favourable juxtaposition and membrane seals.
• Using the Stress Analysis module in Move Software, the risk of fault seal being
breached by reactivation can be rapidly assessed.
• WHAT IS STRESS ANALYSIS?

FAULT REACTIVATION SURFACE ANALYSIS
• Stress Analysis calculates the effective shear and normal stresses acting on a 3D
surface for a user-defined triaxial stress state.
• The resultant values can be combined with pore pressure changes, to quantify the
reactivation potential of a fault.
• In total, six parameters can be applied in Move Software to evaluate the probability of
fault reactivation and seal breach.
• Slip Tendency is often the most commonly applied parameter in fault seal analysis
(Morris et al., 1996; Mildren et al., 2005).
• WHAT IS A SLIP TENDENCY?

FAULT REACTIVATION SURFACE ANALYSIS CONT’D
• Slip Tendency is the ratio of
effective shear stress (Т) to
normal stress (σn).
• Greater values indicate a higher

slip tendency and, therefore, a
higher probability of fault
reactivation.
• Calibration suggests that 0.6 is

the critical value above which, a
fault will slip, thus breaching
the seal and providing a
potential conduit for fluid flow
(Cotesta et al., 2007) Fig. 3: Mohr circle illustrating the calculation of Slip
tendency. The red point represents the resolved stress
on one triangle of a fault mesh surface.
SIGNIFICANCE
• SEAL
• TRAP
• MIGRATION PATHWAYS
• STRESS ANALYSIS
• RESERVOIR
COMPARTMENTALIZATION Fig.4: Fault seal and reservoir compartmentalization
CONCLUSION
• Fault seal analysis is a link between seal integrity and reservoir

compartmentalization.
• It solves the problem of dry hole.
• It creates good understanding between fluid pressure compartment.
• it solves the problem of reservoir leakages.
• It paves way for accurate risk analysis.
• It saves time and money.
• It crates good lucid understanding of fault linkages
RESERVOIR
COMPARTMENTALIZATION
BY
PAU-UI-0704

DATE: 15-08-2022
• INTRODUCTION
• TYPES OF RESERVOIR COMPARTMENTALIZATION
• HOW TO RECOGNISE COMPARTMENTALIZED RESERVOIR
• RESERVOIR COMPARTMENTALIZATION TECHNIQUES
• CASE STUDY
• SIGNIFICANCE
• CONCLUSION
INTRODUCTION
WHAT IS RESERVOIR COMPARTMENTALIZATION?
• Segregation of a petroleum accumulation
• ‘Sealed’ boundaries in the reservoir
• No communication of fluid flow
• Adrop in well-head pressure
• A drop in oil production rate, and by a rapidly
rising gas-oil ratio.
CONTROLLED BY
• Structural features (barriers or baffles)
• Stratigraphic variations (porosity and
permeability)
• Or by the combination of the two
Figure 1.Seismic cross-sections across the Snøhvit field

with key stratigraphic units(Ostanin etal, 2017)
TYPES OF RESERVOIR COMPARTMENTALIZATION
Compartmentalization: geological
heterogeneities + fluid movement
retardation
 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON FLOW
 Static reservoir compartmentalization (Total Seal)
 Dynamic reservoir compartmentalization (Partial
seal or baffle)
Compartmentalization occurs if transmissibility
across them is slower than the production time scale.
 Both(Seal and baffle)
 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON STRUCTURE
 Structural,
 Stratigraphic,
 and mixed-mode
Figure 2. Reservoir compartmentalization type(Herringshaw, et al, 2014)
HOW TO RECOGNISE COMPARTMENTALIZED RESERVOIR
 Producing field: It is very difficult to confirm

whether a reservoir is compartmentalized until
field begins producing, and dynamic pressure-
time data can be analyse
 Barriers: Stratigraphic compartmentalization
(mudstones and salts) tends to produce barriers
to vertical fluid movement
 Compartmentalization magnitude: Its
magnitude is dependent on the net-to-gross (NTG)
threshold and the reservoir dimensions
 Net to Gross ratio: NTG values of >60% are
usually a strong indicator of reservoir connectivity
 Channelization: Channelization of sandstones
also creates stratigraphic compartmentalization in
marginal marine succession
Figure 3.Three settings on slope-to-basin profile defined as confined,

weakly confined, and unconfined-distributive (Funk, Slatt, and Pyles 2012)
RESERVOIR COMPARTMENTALIZATION TECHNIQUES
• Analysis of fluid properties,

• Pressure-volume-temperature (PVT) data, and
• 3D Seismic survey (lithological changes, fault distributions, and fluid variations),
• 4D seismic monitoring( fluid movement and reservoir drainage),
• VSP Data,
• Time-lapse geochemistry monitoring,
• Well test data analysis(production behaviour of a well is examined),
• Sequence stratigraphy and EOD analysis
Well test data analysis
Production behaviour of a well is examined for
• Evaluation of potential compartmentalization.
• Fluid proprerties
• Reservoir geometries or structures
• Field behaviour
THINGS TO CONSIDER
 Flow rates:Determination of the flow rates of fluids over time as field production develops.
 Well testing duration: Weeks to months is ideal
 EIA and Economic factor: This can be economically or environmentally unfeasible
 Contineous testing: Evaluating the subsequent behaviour of the reservoir is especially important.
 Pressure meters: Pressure meters in the well helps for the post-test pressure recovery in the well
 Pressure build-up tests: Helps for the restoration of pressure in the reservoir and potential flow
barriers and baffles
 Single well test: It may show compartmentalization but not its extent.
How to carry out well test data
analysis
WELL TEST METHOD
 A single well is placed into production or injection, whilst adjacent wells are shut in with pressure
gauges installed (Gluyas and Swarbrick 2004)
 When production or injection commences in the test well, the subsequent pressure changes and
durations can be determined in the surrounding wells, providing a much clearer picture of the reservoir
structure and behaviour.
IMPORTANT THINGS TO NOTE BEFORE AND AFTER THE TEST
BASELINE FIELD DATA ON FLUID ATTRIBUTES
 At the commencement of drilling, in order to provide the baseline field data on fluid characteristics and
behaviour, pressure-volume-temperature (PVT) analysis must be carried out.
 Variations in PVT values from different wells within a field are a strong indicator of reservoir
compartmentalization.
CRITICAL STATE OF A FLUID
 If the fluids are in a critical or near-critical state, they can be gravity segregated, such that wells within a
connected reservoir might give different PVT values suggestive of compartmentalization.
DIFFERENT FLUID PROPERTIES
 If different wells or reservoir intervals show different fluid properties such as chemistry, density, and
viscosity, the reservoir may be interpreted as compartmentalized reservoir
How to carry out well test data analysis cont’d
FLUID PROPERTY EQUILIBRUM
 Pressure differences will equilibrate over 10 kilometres within 10 years, so if differences in fluid
pressure are detected within a new field, it is much more likely that the reservoir is
compartmentalized (Smalley & Muggeridge 2010)
 Fluid property equilibrum depends on the size and age of the reservoir.
 The isotopic composition of reservoir pore fluids, for example, will equilibrate slowly across a
reservoir.
PRE-PRODUCTION DATA
 The acquisition of pre-production fluid data provided the baseline by which changes in fluid
composition could be measured.
 Collecting produced fluid samples is a means of detecting dynamic changes in reservoir
communication
CASE STUDY: Characterization of compartmented
reservoirs deposited in a fluvial environment
• Data used
• Well log data
• 3D Seismic data
• Vsp Data
• Pressure data
• Base map
Figure 4. Map of the prolific Frio gas trend in south Texas

showing the location of Stratton Field.
Generalized map of the study area
• The solid dots: production wells, 40-
acre spacings
• The circled dots: well with modern

logs, cores, or pressure tests.
• The 3-D seismic: area is ~ 7.6 mi 2

(19
km2).
• VSP control data: were recorded in

two closely spaced wells (175 and 202) inside the
triangle near the center of the 3-D seismic grid.
Generalized map of the study area (Hardage, et al.(1996)

VSP WELL DATA VS SEISMIC TIE
• Final migrated 3-D data volume (a) and (d)
• Zero-offset VSP image (c) obtained at the VSP
control well.
• The stratigraphic column (b) shows most of the
reservoirs penetrated by the VSP well.
• Note how many reservoirs are there, how thin
they are, and how closely spaced they are
vertically.
USE OF VSP
• The time positions of the top and base of each
reservoir
• Precise positioning of thin-bed reservoir on
seismic
• Location reservoir depositional surface in 3-D
seismic image.
• Time to depth conversion of the reservoir
surfaces Figure 5. Vsp well data vs seismic tie (Hardage, et al.(1996)
3D SEISMIC RESERVOIR TOP
HORIZON
• An east-west vertical slice from the
time-migrated 3-D data crossing the
VSP control well, which is at
crossline coordinate 118.
• Surfaces AA and BB follow the two
continuous Frio reflection events
that were used as reference stratal
surfaces for flattening the 3-D
seismic data volume.
• Horizon CC is conformable to
surface BB and defines the deepest
Frio reservoir level.
• Immediately below horizon CC is the
severely faulted Vicksburg section.Figure 6. Reservoir horizon mapping (Hardage, et al.(1996)
SEISMIC ATTRIBUTE ANALYSIS
Seismic reflection amplitude (Hardage, et al.(1996)

F37 RESERVOIR (CC HORIZON)
Figure 7. EOD (Hardage, et al.(1996)

Figure 8. EOD (A,B,C are meander features) and BHP
History of F37 Reservoir (Hardage, et al.(1996)
F37 RESERVOIR PRESSURE
HISTORIES
• F37 reservoir pressure histories
observed in wells near the
seismically imaged meander
features. WELL 189
• These pressure decline curves
indicate that these wells are
WE
WE
positioned in at least three
LL
WELL 185
LL
different F37 reservoir
16 1
12 7
compartments, labeled as WELL 129
channels A, B, and C(same labeling
notation used in previous figures)
• Well 189 curves implies that this
well is not in pressure
communication with well 185, even
though both wells are in channel B.
Figure 9. BHP curve (Hardage, et al.(1996)
CASE STUDY TWO: NILE DELTA, EGYPT
Figure 10. NE-SW regional seismic line across

the Temsah fault trend (Abdel Aal et al., 2000).
Figure 11. A generalized stratigraphic column of the
offshore northeastern part of the Nile Delta (compiled
after EGPC, 1994; Nabawy and Shehata, 2015).
Pressure data for the Tortonian-Serravallian Wakar-Sidi
Salem sequence
• Tortonian and Serravallian

sequences with pressure
gradient (G) values equal to 0.17
and 0.16 psi/ft, respectively. Tortonian
• Also, it shows a complete

isolated compartmentalization
between the Tortonian and
Serravallian sequences, where Serravallian
the pressure values are higher
downward
Figure 12. Pressure data for the Tortonian-Serravallian Wakar-Sidi Salem sequence
measured using the Repeat Formation Tester (RFT) and Modular Formation Dynamic
Tester (MDT) tools, Temsah-3 well (Nabawy, et al.,2018)
SIGNIFICANCE
• To obtain maximal information on hydrocarbon properties, reservoir
structure and field behaviour
• Safes the time and money of drilling numerous wells
• Compartmentalization in oil and gas fields are of relevance to
understanding the prospectivity of saline aquifers as sites for the
geological storage of carbon dioxide.
CONCLUSION
• Compartmentalization simply means isolaton of reservoir fluids into
different compartment with little communication(Baffles) or no
communication(Barriers).
• It can be determined through NGR and reservoir fluid properties.
• The compartment can be statigraphic or structural.
• It can be static or dynamic
THANK YOU FOR YOUR ATTENTION
DATING METHODS AND PRINCIPLES (RADIOMETRY, ELECTRON
SPIN RESONANCE, THERMOLUMINISCENCE AND
PALEOMAGNETISM)
BY
PAU-UI-0704

DATE: 28-07-2022
• INTRODUCTION
• TYPES OF DATING
• APPLICATION OF DATING
• SIGNIFICANCE
• CONCLUSION
INTRODUCTION
• How Old Is the Earth?
• How Can We Determine
Earth’s Geologic History?
• How Can We Determine the
Age of Geologic Events?
THE EARTH
TYPES OF DATING
• Two Primary Means of Dating Rocks
1) Relative Dating Relative Dating
• Determines the temporal order of rock forming events
• Does not give numeric ages
• Use of stratigraphic principles and fossils
• Cheap
2) Absolute Dating Absolute Dating
•  Determines the numeric age of rock forming events
•  Only appropriate for ages of igneous rocks and minerals
•  Primary method is the radiometric technique
•  Used in conjunction with stratigraphic principles and fossils
•  Expensive
Relative Versus Absolute Dating
Relative Dating
• Stratigraphic principles
• Fossil Succession
• Emphasis on Sed Rocks
Absolute Dating
• Radio-Isotopic techniques
• Emphasis on Igneous Rocks
SOURCE: Ray Rector

How Can We Figure Out the Age Sequence of Geologic Events?
The Stratigraphic Principles
1. Superposition - Oldest layer occurs at base of a layered sequence
and is overlain by progressively younger rock layers.
2. Cross-Cutting Relations - If a body or discontinuity cuts across a
rock structure, it must have formed after that stratum.
3. Law of Inclusions - Rock fragments (in another rock) must be older
than the rock containing the fragments.
4. Law of Fossil Succession - Unique fossil groups were succeeded by
other fossil groups through time.
5. Original Horizontality - All sedimentary rocks are originally deposited
horizontally. Sedimentary rocks that are no longer horizontal have been
tilted from their original position.
6. Lateral Continuity - Sedimentary and volcanic rocks are laterally
continuous over large areas.
The Stratigraphic Principles
Principle of Superposition Principle of Cross-Cutting Relations
Principle of Inclusions
Principle of Fossil Succession

Index Fossils
1) Narrow time range
2) Worldwide distribution
3) Preserve in a wide range of depositional settings
4) Very Abundant
Index fossils Original horizontality
Principle of Lateral Continuity Principle of Unconformities
Q?
ABSOLUTE DATING
Absolute dating is usually based on the physical, chemical, and
life properties of the materials.
RADIOMETRY,
ELECTRON SPIN RESONANCE,
THERMOLUMINISCENCE,
OPTICAL STIMULATING LUMINESCENCE,
PALEOMAGNETISM
ABSOLUTE DATING
Name of Method Age Range of Material Dated Methodology
Application
Radiocarbon 1 - 70,000 years Organic material such as Radioactive decay of 14C
bones, wood, charcoal, in organic matter after
shells removal from bioshpere
K-Ar dating 1,000 - billion of years Potassium-bearing Radioactive decay of 40K

minerals and glasses in rocks and minerals
Uranium-Lead 10,000 - billion of years Uranium-bearing Radioactive decay of

minerals uranium to lead via two
separate decay chains
ABSOLUTE DATING
Name of Method Age Range of Application Material Dated Methodology
Uranium series 1,000 - 500,000 years Uranium-bearing minerals, Radioactive decay of 234U
corals, shells, teeth, CaCO3 to 230Th
Fission track 1,000 - billion of years Uranium-bearing minerals Measurement of damage

and glasses tracks in glass and minerals
from the radioactive decay
of 238U
Luminescence (optically or 1,000 - 1,000,000 years Quartz, feldspar, stone Burial or heating age based
thermally stimulated) tools, pottery on the accumulation of
radiation-induced damage
to electron sitting in
mineral lattices
ABSOLUTE DATING
Electron Spin Resonance 1,000 - 3,000,000 years Uranium-bearing materials Burial age based on
(ESR) in which uranium has been abundance of radiation-
absorbed from outside induced paramagnetic
sources centers in mineral lattices
Cosmogenic Nuclides 1,000 - 5,000,000 years Typically quartz or olivine Radioactive decay of
from volcanic or cosmic-ray generated
sedimentary rocks nuclides in surficial
environments
Magnetostratigraphy 20,000 - billion of years Sedimentary and volcanic Measurement of ancient

rocks polarity of the earth's
magnetic field recorded in
a stratigraphic succession
ABSOLUTE DATING
100 - billions of years Volcanic ejecta Uses chemistry and age of
volcanic deposits to
ephrochronology
establish links between
distant stratigraphic
successions
ABSOLUTE DATING
GENERAL WORKING PRINCIPLE FOR EXCEPTION RANGE
Applicable to materials that are
• Thermoluminescence, up to about 100,000 years old
• Optical stimulating luminescence and

• Electron spin resonance
RADIOACTIVE DECAY ABSOPTION (NON
(RADIOCATIVE ELEMENT) RADITAION ELECTRON DISPLACEMENT
RADIOACTIVE ELEMENTS)
TRAP OR IMPERFECTION
EXCEPTION RANGE
No accumulation of electron when the
rock or fossil is older than 100,000 years
because the trap is full ELECTRON ACCUMULATION
AGE
RADIOMETRY
RADIOCARBON DATING
RADIOCARBON DATING
• Once an organism dies, it ceases to obtain more 14C
• 14C decays reducing the concentration within organism after death
• 14C decays by beta emission, emission of an electron and a neutron
changing into a proton, thus reverting back into nitrogen
14
C ---> 14N + ß + neutrino
The emitted beta particles (ß) are what is counted in Libby's "gas
proportional“ method of 14C dating
RADIOCARBON DATING
Determining the Starting Amount

Two types of carbon used in the dating process: 12C and 14C
• C is a stable isotope (it does not decay)
12
• When an organism is alive it has the same ratio (12C to 14C) that is found in
the atmosphere (1-trillion to 100-trillion)
Same ratio Different

ratio
RADIOCARBON DATING
The C-14 dating method relies on measuring the
amount of 14C in the material
Two Things Need to Know to determine

how many half-lives have expired
1. How fast it decays (measured in half-lives). This
is known (5,730 years --> Cambridge half life).
2. The starting amount of C-14 in the fossil.
A Critical Detail
RADIOCARBON DATING
How the C / C Ratio Works

12 14
RADIOCARBON DATING EQUTIONS
The all important age equation:
N=Noe -λt
λ=In2/t1/2
• No is the number of atoms of parent isotope
remaining in a substance
• N is the number of atoms of daughter isotope
produced through decay,
• λ is the decay constant (which depend on the isotope
in question)
• t is the amount of elapsed time.
• t1/2 is half life
RADIOCARBON DATING EQUTIONS
A more useful equation for age determination:

Rock age= 1/λ x ln[(Do-Dc) + 1]
N
λ=In2/t 1/2
• Do is the original amount of daughter

isotope in the sample
• N is the amount of current parent isotope in
the sample
• Dc is the amount of current daughter isotope
in the sample
PALEOMAGNETISM
The Earth is like a gigantic magnet.
It has a magnetic north and south pole and its magnetic field is
everywhere.
Magnetic needle in a compass points toward magnetic north,
Small magnetic minerals that occur naturally in rocks point toward

magnetic north, approximately parallel to the Earth's magnetic field.
Because of this, magnetic minerals in rocks are excellent recorders of

the orientation, or polarity, of the Earth's magnetic field.
PALEOMAGNETISM CONT’D
ORIGIN OF THE EARTH’S MAGNETISM
• Core
• Core current
MAGNETIC POLARITY DEPENDENT
• Core current direction
• Mantle current direction
MAGNETIC POLARITY
• NORMAL POLARITY: magnetic north marries geographical north
• REVERSE POLARITY: Magnetic north marries geographical south
What is paleomagnetism method? Radiometric dates and
measurements of the ancient magnetic polarity in volcanic and
sedimentary rocks
Geologists have been able to determine precisely when magnetic

reversals occurred in the past.
Combined observations of this type have led to the development of

the geomagnetic polarity time scale (GPTS)
The GPTS is divided into periods of normal polarity and reversed

polarity.
• Earth’s magnetic field:
earth’s magnetic field that any
earth’s magnetic material aligns
to
• Geomagnetic polarity time

scale (GPTS): Black bands
indicate times of normal
polarity and white bands
indicate times of reversed
polarity.
APPLICATION
CONCLUSION
Using a variety of methods, geologists are able to determine the age
of geological materials to answer the question: "how old is this
fossil?"
Relative dating methods are used to describe a sequence of events.

These methods use the principles of stratigraphy to place events
recorded in rocks from oldest to youngest.
Absolute dating methods determine how much time has passed since
rocks formed by measuring the radioactive decay of isotopes or the
effects of radiation on the crystal structure of minerals.
Paleomagnetism measures the ancient orientation of the Earth's
magnetic field to help determine the age of rocks.
THANK YOU
GRAVITATIONAL INSTABILITY OF BOUYANT LAYERS USING
SCALING ANALYSIS, LONG-WAVE ANALYSIS AND LINEAR
STABILITY ANALYSIS
BY
PAU-UI-0704
AND
NDIAYE NDEYE KHADY
PAU-UI-0702
DATE: 02-09-2022
• INTRODUCTION
• SCALING ANALYSIS,
• LONG-WAVE ANALYSIS,
• LINEAR STABILITY ANALYSIS,
• SIGNIFICANCE
• CONCLUSION
INTRODUCTION
GRAVITATIONAL
INSTABILITY OF BOUYANT
LAYERS
• Convecting system
• Mantle plumes
• Horizontal thermal
boundary layer instability
Fig.1: Mantle plume formation

SCALING ANALYSIS
• Scaling analysis is a powerful intermediate method that provides more
information than dimensional analysis while avoiding the labor of a
complete solution.
• It proceeds by estimating the orders of magnitude of the different terms

in a set of governing equations, using both known and unknown
quantities, and then exploiting the fact that the terms must balance (the
definition of an equation!) to determine how the unknown quantities
depend on the known.
SCALING ANALYSIS CON’T
• Scaling analysis refers to order of magnitude estimates on how different
processes work together and control a system.
• While this is a text on numerical analysis, such theoretical considerations

are very useful if we are interested in getting a quick idea of the values
that are of relevance for a problem, and for the order of magnitude for
solutions.
• The essential scalings for cellular convection at high Rayleigh number can be determined by a
scaling analysis of the governing equations.
• The following derivation (for the cell geometry shown in Figure 2) generalizes the analysis of
McKenzie et al (1974) to include both free-slip and rigid-surface boundary conditions. For simplicity
we assume (in this subsection only) that the aspect ratio β does not differ much from unity
• The analysis proceeds by determining six equations relating six unknown quantities the thickness
𝛿𝑝 of the thermal plumes, the thickness 𝛿ℎ of the horizontal TBLs, the maximum vertical velocity
vp and the vorticity ω in the plumes, the horizontal velocity uh at the edge of the horizontal BLs,
and the heat flux q across the layer (per unit length along the roll axes).
The heat flux carried by an upwelling plume is
q~ρcpvpΔT𝛿p
Geometry and boundary conditions for (a) driven cavity

flow and (b) steady cellular convection in a rectangle x[-
𝞫/2, 𝞫 /2], y [-1/2,1/2] with impermeable boundaries. All
lengths are on dimensionalized by the height of the
rectangle
Fig.2: Geometry and boundary conditions

LONG-WAVE ANALYSIS
• An earthquake wave that travels around the
earth's surface and is usually the third
conspicuous wave to reach a seismograph.
• Examples of long waves are tidal waves,

standing waves (water oscillation,
seiches) and seismic waves (tsunami)
• The speed of a long wave is governed by

The parameters of water waves [SE] (Earle et al., 2015)
the depth, and they move faster over
deep water
LONG-WAVE ANALYSIS MODEL
A long-wave model for this process has been proposed based on two
assumptions:
• That the characteristic horizontal scale of the flow greatly exceeds the BL
thickness.
• That the horizontal velocity of the fluid is approximately constant across the
BL.
NOTE
• The latter assumption excludes hot BLs within which the (temperature
dependent) viscosity is much lower than outside, and makes the model most
applicable to plume formation in cold BLs.
LONG-WAVE ANALYSIS MODEL
WHERE WILL HORIZONTAL VELOCITY WILL BE CONSTANT IN THIS HOT BOUNDARY
LAYERS?
OUTSIDE
OUTSIDE
VISCOSITY=100 m2./s
VISCOSITY=20m2./s
INSIDE HOT BL (VISCOSITY=10 m2./s) INSIDE HOT BL (VISCOSITY=10 m2./s)
A B
LONG-WAVE ANALYSIS CON’T
• The two assumptions allow the coupled
3-D dynamics of the BL and the fluid
outside it to be reduced to 2-D
equations for the lateral velocity at the
edge of the BL
• And a temperature moment that

describes the distribution of buoyancy
within it
(Ribe, 2015.)
LAYER A
• (a) Rayleigh–Taylor instability of a layer of
fluid with density + and viscosity above a
half-space of fluid with density and viscosity
• The initial thickness of the dense layer is ,

and the deformation of the interface is
• The maximum values of the horizontal and

vertical velocities at the interface z= are U
and W, respectively, and Ȗ is the magnitude
of the change in horizontal velocity across
the layer
LAYER B
• Buoyant instability of a cold thermal
boundary layer. The upper
surface of a fluid half-space is held at a
fixed temperature -
relative to the interior.
• The density of the fluid varies with

temperature as (1-gT), where is the thermal
expansion coefficient.
• The thickness of the boundary layer is h,

and the viscosity within it is (X3)
LINEAR STABILITY ANALYSIS
• Basic linear stability analysis consists of presuming the existence of sinusoidal
disturbances to a basic state (also called a background, initial, or equilibrium
state), which is the flow whose stability is being investigated.
•The condition for stability of a body………

LINEAR STABILITY ANALYSIS CON’T
 Another measure of the stability of a floating
object is the amount of offset between the line of
action of the weight of the object acting through
the Centre of gravity and that of the buoyancy
• The figure shows static stability curve for a floating

body
• It shows a characteristic plot of righting arm versus

the angle of rotation for a floating body
• As long as the value of GH remains positive the

floating body is stable. Conversely, when GH
becomes negative the floating body is instable and
it will overturn.
• In mathematics, in the theory of differential equations and dynamical
systems, a particular stationary or quasistationary solution to a
nonlinear system is called linearly unstable if the linearization of the
equation at this solution has the form dA
• Where r is the perturbation to the steady state, A is a linear operator

whose spectrum contains eigenvalues with positive real part.
• If all the eigenvalues have negative real part, then the solution is called
linearly stable.
• Other names for linear stability include exponential stability or stability

in terms of first approximation.
• If there exist an eigenvalue with zero real part then the question about
stability cannot be solved on the basis of the first approximation.
• Examples
• Ordinary differential equation
• The differential equation
• = has two stationary (time-independent) solutions: x = 0 and x = 1.
LINEAR UNSTABILITY
• The linearization at x = 0 has the form =
• The linearized operator is A0 = 1
LINEAR STABILITY
• To derive the linearization at x=1, the equation is =(1+r)- (1+r)2 =-r-r2
• Where r=x-1.
• The linearized equation is then =-r
• The linearized operator is A1=-1
• The eigenvalue is ʎ =-1, hence this stationary points is linear stable
SIGNIFICANCE
• Predictability of buoyant body movement
• Modeling of buoyant body
• Predicting Earthquake
• It gives clue about the interior part of the earth
CONCLUSION
This gravitation instability of buoyant layers is been controlled by
temperature, volume, masse, pressure, viscosity and acceleration
due to gravity.
REFERENCES
• Earle, S., Earle, S., & Earle, S. (2015). 17.1 Waves.
https://opentextbc.ca/geology/chapter/17-1-waves/
• Ribe, N. M. (n.d.). Analytical Approaches to Mantle Dynamics. 52.
• What is a mantle plume? (n.d.). Quora. Retrieved August 31, 2022, from
https://www.quora.com/What-is-a-mantle-plume

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STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS:IDENTIFICATION,

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE AND SIGNIFICANCE

DEPARTMENT OF PETROLEUM GEOSCIENCES

• ELEMENTS= COMPONENTS, CONSTITUENT, PART, SECTION, PORTION ETC