Unit - II

Microwave Sources
 Content
• Limitations and losses of conventional tubes at microwave
frequencies
• Classification of Microwave tubes
• Two cavity klystron (Only Qualitative Treatment)
• Reflex Klystrons - structure, Velocity Modulation, Applegate
diagram, mathematical theory of bunching, power output,
efficiency, oscillating modes and O/P characteristics
• Slow wave structures
• Structure of Helix TWT and amplification process
• Magnetrons - different types, cylindrical travelling wave
magnetron – Hull cutoff and Hartree conditions
• Illustrative Problems
 M-Type Tubes
• Magnetron is high power microwave oscillator and it
forms the basic various microwave radar transmitter
system even today.

• This microwave generator makes use of magnetic

field for producing oscillations at microwave
frequencies.

• They are capable of producing megawatt of peak

power in centimetre wavelength range and may be
operated at wavelength extending down to millimetre
range.
M-Type Tubes
Comparison of O-Type and M-Type Tubes
 Types of Magnetrons
• All types of magnetron consist of some form of anode and cathode operated
in a DC magnetic field normal to a DC electric field between the cathode
and anode.

• Because of the crossed field between the cathode and anode, the electrons
emitted from the cathode are influenced by the magnetic field to move in
curved paths.

• If the DC magnetic field is strong enough, the electrons will not arrive in the
anode but return instead to the cathode consequently, the anode current is
cut-off.

• There are three types of magnetron:

1. Negative resistance type (split anode magnetron).
2. Cyclotron frequency type.
3. Travelling wave (cavity magnetron) type.
 Contd.,
• 1. Negative resistance type:

This type of magnetron uses a static negative resistance between

two anode segments but have low efficiency and are useful only at
low frequency (below microwave). Anode is split into the
segments hence the name split anode magnetron.

• 2. Cyclotron frequency (magnetron) type:

This type of magnetron operates under the influence of

synchronism between an alternating component of electric field
and a periodic oscillation of electrons in a direction parallel to the
field. There are useful only for the frequency greater than 100
MHz but their power output is very low.
 Contd.,
• 3. Travelling wave (cavity magnetron) type:

Operation of travelling wave magnetron depends on the

interaction of electrons with rotating electromagnetic field of
constant angular velocity, customarily referred to simply as
magnetrons.

These provide oscillations of very high peak power and are very
useful in radar application.

Travelling wave (cavity) magnetron is most widely used

magnetron as negative-resistance magnetron generally operate
below the microwave region and cyclotron-frequency magnetron
operate at microwave frequency range but their output power is
very low (about 1 W at 3 GHz).
 ADVANTAGES OF CAVITY (TRAVELLING WAVE)
MAGNETRON
• Cavity magnetron is most widely M-Type Tube for radar system
due to the advantages like

1. Cavity magnetron is high power source. Its average power

output is up to 800 kW.

2. High efficiency (40% to 70%).

3. Operating frequency is high, up to 70 GHz.

No other microwave devices can perform the same function with

same size, weight, voltage as can the cavity magnetron.
Cylindrical Magnetron
 Contd.,
• Construction:

• The magnetron is classed as a diode because it has no grid.

• Magnetron is a cylindrical configuration with thick cylindrical

cathode at the centre and a coaxial cylindrical block of copper
as anode.

• The anode block cuts in a number of hole which acts as

resonant anode cavity as shown in Fig. below.

• Cavity magnetron is the most practically used magnetron.

 Contd.,

Figure: Construction of cavity magnetron

 Contd.,
• Number of holes may very from 8 to 20 depends on the
requirement.

• The open space between the anode and cathode is called the
interaction space, where the electric and magnetic fields interact to
force the electrons.

• The magnetic field is usually provided by a strong permanent

magnet mounted around the magnetron. So, that the magnetic field
is parallel with the axis of the cathode and radial electric field is
provided by connecting a voltage source between anode and
cathode as shown in Fig. (b).

• The output of the magnetron is taken from one of the cavities by

means of co-axial line or though waveguide depending on the
power and frequency.
 Contd.,
• Mode of Operation:

• There are number of resonant cavity (N) in a magnetron and

therefore, it must have equal number of resonant frequencies and
or modes of operation.

• In addition these modes must be self consistent so that the total

phase shift around the ring at cavity resonators is 2πn, where n is
an integer.

• Eg., it is not possible for an 8 cavity magnetron (the most practical

type) to employ a mode in which phase difference between
adjacent anodes is 30°, this leads to a total phase difference of 30
× 8 = 240°, meaning thereby that first anode is out of phase from
itself by 120° (360 − 240°).
 Contd.,
• It can be seen that the smallest phase difference between two
adjacent pole pieces obtainable with an 8 cavity magnetron is 45°
or π/4, which results in an overall phase shift of 360° (45° × 8) or
2π radians which is self consistent as it required.

• This π/4 mode is seldom used in practice because it does not gives
suitable characteristics and the more commonly used mode is the π
mode.

• Therefore, if φ represents the relative phase change of the AC

electric field across adjacent cavity then,

• where 2πn is total shift around the ring at cavity resonators

 Contd.,

• Magnetron operating in π-mode has greater power and output hence

most commonly used. Figure below shows the waveforms of
magnetron for π-mode and π/2-mode.
 Contd.,
• Cavity magnetron has number of resonant cavities and hence most
have an equal number of resonant frequencies or modes.

• For π-mode, n = N/2.

• π-mode, has greater power and output.

• For an eight cavity magnetron, if n = N/2 = 4, then φ equals to π

radians, this gives π-mode of oscillation.

• For magnetron operation, the magnetic field is kept always above

the cut-off field.
 Contd.,
• Operating
Principle

• Depending on the
relative strengths
of the electric and
magnetic fields
the electrons
emitted from the
cathode and
moving towards
the anode.
 Contd.,
• In the absence of oscillation and when magnetic field is zero, i.e.,
B = 0, the electron travels straight from the cathode to anode due
to radial electric field force acting on it shown by electron path a1
in Fig. Above.

• A very weak magnetic field slightly deflects the electron b1 to

move in a circular path (having large radius).

• A large magnetic field is required to deflect the electron c1,

sharply, so that it grazes the surface of anode, is called cut-off
field (Bc).

• Above this field, anode current is zero as no electron reaches the

anode shown as electron d, in Fig. above. For magnetron
operation, the magnetic field is kept always above the cut-off
field.
 Contd.,
• π-Mode of Operation:

• For oscillations to sustain in a magnetron oscillator, the phase

difference (φ) between two adjacent anode poles should equal to
2πn/N, where N is the number of cavities and n is any integer.

• For an eight cavity magnetron and n = 4, φ equals π radians. This

gives rise to π-mode oscillations.

• It is assumed that oscillations start due to noise or switching

transient which are sustained by device operation.

• In π-mode of operation, the polarities of anode poles will change

accordingly with the frequency of oscillations sustained by
device.
Contd.,
 Contd.,
• In the absence of such oscillations electron ‘a’ and ‘b’ would
follow the paths shown by the dotted circles in Fig. above. The
presence of RF field due to oscillations modify these paths.

• The present of RF field leads to a tangential component of electric

field. At position (1), the tangential component of RF field
opposes the motions of electron ‘a’ and retarded. This electron ‘a’
delivers some of its kinetic energy to the microwave field and
slows down.

• The voltages and field are arranged so that, by the time the
electron ‘a’ comes at position (2), the RF field would have
reversed its polarity. The electron ‘a’ encounters a situation
similar to position (1) and it is further slowed down at this stage
and another interaction of same types occurs at position (3), the
electron ‘a’ again gives out it energy.
 Contd.,
• Finally, the electron ‘a’ strikes one of the anode poles and gets
attracted by positive voltage on the anode pole.

• In this way, the favoured electron like ‘a’ spend considerable time
in the interaction space and finally strike the anode surface.

• However electron of type ‘b’ are accelerated by the RF field,

gains velocity and get deflected sharply by the magnetic field.

• These ‘b’ type of electrons are unfavourable as they absorb

energy from the oscillations and also cause back heating of
cathode due to electrons returning with large velocity.
 Contd.,

• In addition, a focussing mechanism keep the favoured electron to

form a cloud as shown in Fig. above.
 Contd.,
• In previous Fig. an electron ‘c’ emitted a little later than ‘a’ is
accelerated by the field and catches up with electron ‘a’ and an
electron ‘d’ emitted a little earlier than ‘a’ is retarded and falls
back to catch up with ‘c’ and ‘a’ forming a bunch.

• Due to these action, the electron orbit are mainly confined to

spokes (electron cloud) as shown in Fig. above.

• The electrons emitted from the cathode travel out through these
spokes regularly delivering energy to the oscillations untill they
reach the anode and are absorbed. Thus, these spokes transfer
energy to the oscillations and these are sustained by the device.

• In magnetron, electrons emitted by the cathode are accelerated by

the electric field and their paths is bent by the magnetic field.
 MODE JUMPING AND MODE SEPARATION
The number of resonant frequencies, or modes as they are called, equals the
number of cavities as the resonant system of magnetron consists of a number of
individuals resonators, one for each cavity, which are coupled together into one
system. ‘N’ number of cavity resonator gives rise to an equal number of possible
mode.

The resonant modes of magnetron are very close to each other and there is always
a possibility of mode jumping.

The weaker modes have frequencies differing very little from the dominant mode
(π-mode) and the purity of vibrations may be lost.

A magnetron in which no effort is made to separate the dominant mode (π-mode)

from other mode is said to be unstrapped.

There are two methods for separations of dominant mode from the other mode.
1. By using strapping ring
2. By using rising sun anode.
 1. By using strapping ring
• The frequency of the π-mode is separated from the frequency of
the other mode by strapping to ensure that the alternate anode
pole have identical polarities.

• This is most common used method to prevent mode jumping.

• Strapping consists of two rings of heavy gauge wire connecting

alternate anode pole which are like poles as shown in Fig.

• One ring is connected to even numbered poles and other to the

odd numbered poles.

• For π-mode, the two rings have opposite potential as indicated

and strapping helps in achieving only the π-mode in magnetron.
 Contd.,
• However, strapping may cause power loss in the conducting
ring.

• Also, at higher frequencies it will be difficult to maintain the RF

field within the interaction space and strapping may introduce
stray effect.
 2. By using rising sun anode
• In this method anode cavities are designed to be dissimilar like
rising sun structure as shown in Fig.

• In the rising sun anode, the adjacent cavities oscillate at widely

different frequencies and only the π-mode with 2π radian phase
will be effective. Hence, separation will be quite effective.
 Contd.,
• Figure below shows a relationships between the frequencies of
different mode for both strapped and unstrapped case. In case of
normal magnetron labelled as unstrapped, the wavelength of
different modes differ very slightly from adjacent modes.
 Contd.,
• Strapping is most common method for separation of π-mode
from the other mode.

• Strapping may cause power in conducting ring.

• In dissimilar anode structure like raising sun, the adjacent

cavities oscillate at widely different frequencies.
 FREQUENCY PUSHING AND PULLING
• The resonant frequency of magnetron can be changed
by changing the anode voltage.

• This process referred to as frequency pushing, is due

to the fact that the change in anode voltage results in
a change in orbital velocity of electrons.

• This alter the rate at which the energy is given up to

anode resonators which then changes the oscillating
frequency.
 Contd.,
• Frequency pulling: Magnetron is also sensitive to frequency variation
due to changes in load impedance. These frequency variations are
known as frequency pulling caused by load impedance.

• Variations reflected into cavity resonators. Frequency pulling

phenomenon is undesirable and should therefore be prevented.

• This takes place regardless of whether these load variations are purely
resistive or involve reactive load variations. However, it is more severe
in case of reactive variations.

• To prevent frequency pulling a stabilized power supply is employed.

Frequency pulling may also be prevented by using a circulator which
does not allow backward flow of electromagnetic energy. It is placed
before the waveguide connection at the output of magnetron.
 CAVITY MAGNETRON ANGULAR
FREQUENCY
• Since magnetic field is normal to the motion of electrons that
travel in a cycloidal path, the outward centrifugal force is
equal to the pulling force, then

• where, R = Radius of the cycloide path. v = Tangential

velocity of electron.

• The angular frequency of the circular motion of electron is

given by
 Contd.,
• and the period of one complete cycle can be given as

• Substituting value of ω
 Performance Characteristics of Cavity Magnetron

• Applications of Cavity Magnetron

1. Pulsed radar is important application with large pulse power.
2. Used in industrial heating purpose.
3. Used in microwave oven.
4. Used as microwave driver in photography and other related
application.
Contd.,
Contd.,
Contd.,
Linear Magnetron
Contd.,
Hartree Condition
Coaxial Magnetron
Contd.,
Contd.,
Voltage Tunable Magnetron
Inverted Coaxial Magnetron
Contd.,
Hull Cutoff, Hartree Conditions