9.2.

4 Maximum Power Point Trackers

 If the load operating point could be kept near the knee of the PV I –V curve
during the day, significant efficiency gains could be realized .
 Devices to do just that, called maximum power trackers (MPPTs), are
available and are a standard part of many PV systems—especially those
that are grid-connected.
 There are circuits at the heart of MPPTs called Buck-Boost converter which
convert the dc level from one level to another. The output voltage is given :
Vo = V where D (duty cycle) =
Figure 9.15 The duty cycle D is the fraction of
the time, during which, the switch of the buck
boost converter is closed
Example 9.2 Duty Cycle for a MPPT
Under certain ambient conditions, a PV module has its maximum power
point at Vm = 17 volts and Im =6 A. What duty cycle should an MPPT have
if the module is delivering power to a 10 ohm resistance?
Solution
The maximum power delivered by the PVs is P = 17 V ×6 A = 102 W. To
deliver all of that 102 W to the 10 ohm resistor means that the resistor needs
a voltage of :
The MPPT must bump the 17-V PV voltage to the desired 31.9-V resistor
voltage.

For a 100% efficient MPPT, the product of current and voltage (power) from
the PVs is the same as the current-voltage product delivered by the MPPT to
the load (Fig. 9.16). One way to visualize the impact of the MPPT is to redraw
the PV I –V curves using D as a parameter (Fig. 9.17).
9.2.5 Hourly I – V Curves
 Manufacturers provide I –V curves for various temperatures and solar
intensity, but there are times when hour-by-hour curves are helpful.
 Over most of a PV I –V curve, current at any voltage is directly
proportional to insolation. That suggests we can simply scale the 1-sun
(1000 W/m2) I –V curve by moving it up or down in proportion to the
anticipated insolation (Fig. 9.18).
 Figure 9.19 Hour-by-hour PV I –V curves with examples of three different
load types: dc motor, 12-V battery, MPPT.
9.3 GRID-CONNECTED SYSTEMS
 As shown in Fig. 9.20, the principal components in a grid-connected, home
size PV system consists of : PV array , a combiner box that includes
blocking diodes, individual fuses for each string, and usually a lightning
surge arrestor.
 Additional components not shown include the maximum power point
tracker (MPPT), a ground-fault circuit interrupter (GFCI) that shuts the
system down if any currents flow to ground, and circuitry to disconnect
the PV system from the grid if the utility loses power.
 The system may also include a small battery bank to provide back-up
power in case the grid is down. The inverter, some of the fuses and
switches, the MPPT, GFCI, and other power management devices are
usually integrated into a single power conditioning unit (PCU).
 An alternative approach is based on each PV module having its own small
inverter mounted directly onto the backside of the panel.
 These ac modules allow simple expansion of the system, one module at a
time, as the needs or budget dictate. Another advantage is that the
connections from modules to the house distribution panel can all be done
with relatively inexpensive, ac switches, breakers, and wiring.
9.3.1 Interfacing with the Utility
 The ac output of a grid-connected PV system is fed into the main
electrical distribution panel of the house, from which it can provide
power to the house or put power back onto the grid as shown in Fig. 9.23.

 During the day, the excess power from the array is sold to the utility.

 At night, the deficit is purchased from the utility.

9.3.2 DC and AC Rated Power
 The actual ac power delivered at 1-sun, can be represented as:

where is the dc power of the array at standard conditions.

 The conversion efficiency depends on the following factors:
a) inverter efficiency, b) dirty collectors,
c) mismatched modules, d)difference in ambient conditions.
 In full sun, the impact of these losses can derate the power output by 20–
40%.
Example 9.3 Derating a PV Array
Consider a PV array rated at 1 kW under standard test conditions. Module
nominal operating cell temperature (NOCT) is 47 °C. The DC power output at the
MPP drops by 0.5%/ °C above the STC temperature of 25 °C. Estimate its ac
output under PTC (20 °C, 1-sun) if there is a 3% array loss due to mismatched
modules, dirt loss is 4%, and the inverter has an efficiency of 90% . (PTC means
PV USA test conditions)
Solution
Inserting PTC conditions (ambient 20◦C, insolation S = 1 kW/ into (8.24) gives us
an estimated cell temperature of :
With power loss at 0.5% per degree above 25◦C, the dc rated power of the
array would be:
Pdc (PT C) = 1 kW[1 − 0.005(53.8 − 25)] = 0.856 kW
Including mismatch, dirt, and inverter efficiencies will result in an
estimated ac rated power at PTC of :
Pac(PT C) = 0.856 kW × 0.97 × 0.96 × 0.90 = 0.72 kW
9.3.3 The ‘‘Peak-Hours’’ Approach for Estimating PV Performance:

The energy output per day:

Grid-connected systems have maximum power point trackers that keep the
operating point near the knee of the I –V curve all day long. Since power at the
maximum point is nearly directly proportional to insolation, system efficiency
should be reasonably constant.