THOMAS SAMUEL KUHN (1922-1996)

 The Man who changed the Way the World looked at

Science (Scientific Revolution – paradigm shifts)

 Physicist from Harvard, Berkeley, Princeton, Cambridge

KARL POPPER (1902-1994)
“SCIENCE MAY BE DESCRIBED AS THE ART
OF SYSTEMATIC OVERSIMPLIFICATION.”

A Great Contemporary Philosopher (20th Century)

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. Discuss the paradigm shifts in history

(three examples –Copernicus, Darwin and Freud)
Thomas Kuhn (1962) Structure of Scientific
Revolutions – paradigm shift (5th in the
cycle/process/development)
2. Explain how the Intellectual Revolution changed the
way humans see the world
3. Describe the technological advancements that
happened in the information age (but Why?)
INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTION (BASICS)
 Intellectual Revolution aka Scientific Revolution (Thomas
Kuhn 1962) of theories/models=paradigm
 Intellect means mind and knowledge (reasoning and

understanding)
 The Foundation of Science (& Technology)

In the first part, we will be dealing mostly with history and

philosophy (epistemology)
 Intellectualism started when human knowledge begun to be

disseminated (papyrus, writing on the walls, printing press) –

published materials, books, journals and the media=
information age
KUHN’S CYCLE (STRUCTURE OF SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTIONS )

Pre-science – In the beginning, there is no workable paradigm

(model) to successfully guide the work in a particular field.
(Philosophy, History and S&T discoveries and development)
1. Normal Science - The normal step, where the field has a
scientifically based model of understanding (a paradigm) that
works. (positivist)

2. Model Drift - The model of understanding starts to drift, due

to accumulation of anomalies/controversies, phenomenon the
model cannot explain.
HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY
 Ancient times - Greek and Roman Civilizations
Aristotle, Plato, Socrates, Galen, Theophrastus
(Pre-historic times?)
 How about The Far East? – China, India, Japan,

Korea
(Different Languages and religion)
Other parts – Mesopotamia, Africa, Aztecs
3. Model Crisis - The Model Drift/Anomalies become so excessive the
model is broken. It can no longer serve as a reliable guide to problem
solving. Attempts to patch the model up to make it work fail. The field is in
anguish.

4. Model Revolution – Revolution begins when serious candidates for a

new model emerge. It's a revolution because the new model is so radically
different from the old one.

5. Paradigm Change/Shift - A single new paradigm emerges and the field

changes from the old to the new paradigm. When this step ends the new
paradigm becomes the new Normal Science and the Kuhn Cycle is completel
COPERNICAN REVOLUTION
 In the early days people questioned the creation
of days and nights-(the most common
observable change and one cause for evolution to
happen)
 Also, they wanted to understand heavenly bodies
like stars, moon, and planets and their
movements
COPERNICAN REVOLUTION
 Many Greek philosophers and intellectuals wrote
about planets in an attempt to explain the
movement of heavenly bodies and their effects on
the world as they knew it –Aristotle.
 Many of these philosophers agreed that planets
moved around a circular motion and these
movements created day and night.
COPERNICAN REVOLUTION
 A famous Greco-Roman philosopher and
astronomer, Claudius Ptolemy (100-170 AD),
wrote that the planets as well as the sun and the
moon moved in a circular motion around the
earth. He believed that the earth was at the
center– a concept known as geocentrism.
Ptolemy’s geocentric model was widely accepted
by the people (ca 2nd to 16th century) and was one
of the greatest discoveries of that time.
COPERNICAN REVOLUTION
 In the 16th century, Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-
1543), a Polish mathematician and astronomer
challenged the Ptolemic model.
 He introduced a new concept known as
heliocentricism which suggested that the center
of the Solar System was not the Earth but
actually the sun. This idea was rejected at first by
the public. (Tycho Brahe)
COPERNICAN REVOLUTION
 It appalled many since their religious belief had
taught them that the Earth was created first before
all other things.
 Copernicus was even persecuted as a heretic.
 After some time, astronomers realized that the
Copernicus model simplified the orbits of the
planets ie. Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)
COPERNICAN REVOLUTION
 It also answered issues that could not be
explained using the geocentric model.
 Other works that supported this model started to
emerged as well (Galileo and his powerful
telecope)
 It was eventually accepted by the people in a
period which was called the birth of modern
astronomy. This resulted in the transformation of
a society’s thoughts and beliefs.
WHY WERE INTELLECTUAL IDEAS CONTROVERSIAL?

 1. incomplete empirical observations/some phenomenon

cannot provide generalization (difficulty in inductive-
deductive reasoning )- remains theoretical
 2. intellectuals/philosophers and mathematicians try to debate
on theories
 3. religious acceptance, beliefs/intellectual society-popular
perceptions/consensus
 4. technological breakthrough/scientist/inventors
 5. although no direct economic importance but tremendous
impact on beliefs and way of life because the issue is the
world itself/man itself (Copernican, Freudian)
DARWINIAN REVOLUTION
 Most controversial intellectual revolution
 In 1859, Charles Darwin, an English
naturalist, biologist, published his book, On the
Origin of the Species.
 Darwin introduced the theory of evolution which
pointed that populations pass through a process
of natural selection in which only the fittest
survive.
DARWINIAN REVOLUTION
 The theory became very controversial as people
perceived it to be contradictory to the church’
teaching that the source of life is a powerful
creator – Creation theory.
 Because of the conflict people were divided.
 It even sparked a massive never-ending debate
between science and religion. (Empirical science
vs
religious rationalism)
DARWINIAN REVOLUTION
 It was only after some time that people came to
understand that Darwin’s Theory of Evolution was
not in fact against the teachings of the church and
both can coexist.
 Theory of evolution is not to convince people that

humans came from apes or monkey-like creatures!

 Rene Descartes (Rationalist) and Immanuel Kant’s

Philosophies (Pragmatism)
******
IMMANUEL KANT (1724-1804)
“THE PRAGMATIST”
FREUDIAN REVOLUTION
 In the late 19th century Sigmund Freud (1856-
1939) was able to change people’s perception of
psychology as a scientific endeavor with this
theory of psychoanalysis.
 In the past, the field of psychology was always
classified under philosophy (art rather than
science)
FREUDIAN REVOLUTION
 Psychoanalysis is the study that explains human
behavior. Freud explained that there are many
conscious and unconscious factors that can
influence behavior and emotions.
 He also argued that personality is a product of
three conflicting elements, id, ego and super ego.
FREUDIAN REVOLUTION
 Science hardliners brushed off the legitimacy of
psychoanalysis as a science since its concepts
were philosophical and supernatural.
 Many believed that Freud’s theory had no
scientific basis as no empirical or experimental
data could support it.
FREUDIAN REVOLUTION
 Despite criticisms, Freud still continue to work
on refining his theory and in fact tried to explain
how psychoanalysis can be a clinical method in
treating some mental disorders.
 Soon enough, people were able to understand the
concepts of psychoanalysis, which eventually
resulted in classifying psychology as a science.
(Weir – Elements of Biology)
WHY DID PEOPLE ACCEPT THESE NEW
DISCOVERIES DESPITE BEING
CONTRADICTORY TO WHAT WAS WIDELY
ACCEPTED AT THAT TIME?
 It took some time for them to accept.
After the death of Copernicus
After the death of Darwin
After the struggles of Freud
WHY PEOPLE ACCEPT?
 Main reason is that through scientific research
and experimentation people continued to deepen
their understanding of the world, themselves, and
the universe.
 The changes and development they (intellectual
revolution) brought to the perspectives and
perception of the scientific community and the
public are evidence of S&T link to humanity!
HOW DO INTELLECTUAL REVOLUTIONS TRANSFORM
SOCIETIES?

 As mentioned there is already that link between

S&T and humanity because the issues directly
and obviously impact on them and society ( the
link and the relationships/interactions)
 The great minds (intellectuals/academe)
involving the philosophers, mathematicians and
of course the empirical scientists made possible
the great revolutions
SIR JOSEPH DALTON HOOKER (1817-1911)
BRITISH NATURALIST, BOTANIST
GEORGE BENTHAM (1800-1884)
“GENERA PLANTARUM”
 The eventual technologies from scientific
endeavor paved the way for a better and easier
world
Final Trivia Question
Give two great inventions of all time (that which
really changed the world?)
How about the two inventions that modernized
science?
SPUTNIK (RUSSIA, 1957)
(A 23-INCH ARTIFICIAL SATELLITE)
HISTORICAL HINDSIGHT
 What do you think is the greatest period in
history that provided the rebirth of science and
technology?
 North – South Divide
 East vs West
OTHER SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTIONS
 Asia – China as the oldest civilization (history
and philosophy) ie. Taoism, Buddhism, Maoist
India – Hinduism, Ayurveda
Japan – history and chinese influences
 Meso-America – Aztecs of Mexico
 Middle East – Mesopotamia (Lost World)
 Africa – European controlled, Apartheid
 Philippines?
OTHER EXAMPLES/PARADIGM SHIFTS
 Chemistry – Lavosier vs Phlogiston Theory
 Physics – Einstein’s Relativity
 Biology – Germ Theory, Central Dogma
 Science Education - Constructivism
 Medical – Evidence-Based
QUESTION
 Have we experienced Scientific Revolutions in
the Philippines? Yes or No
If yes, explain how and when?
If no, explain why?
THANK YOU
FOR
LISTENING