PENALTY KICK
EXECUTION
Stimulus Identification
Stimulus identification surrounds the involvement of the senses
and how we as human beings perceive the environment.
Perception is purely based on interpretation thus leading to
several factors that affect how one individual may perceive
something in comparison to someone else.
Familiarity, whether the athlete is a regular penalty taker or if they
are a novice will alter perception. If the individual is more
experienced and they have practised performing this skill
repeatedly, it is likely that they will prove themselves to be more
successful in this specific sporting situation.
Response Selection
Response selection, relating to decision making, is where the
individual decides what information is relevant to receive a
response. For example, this process occurs when deciding
where to place the ball, how much power to put on the shot or
whereabouts the keeper is on their line.
Response Programming
During this stage, the individual prepares themselves for
movement, for example ensuring that their technique is correct
before contacting the ball. Meanwhile, the body uses a process
referred to as a ‘motor program.’ “The motor programs are
control structures that allow the start of a movement according to
specific sequences.” (D’Elia, F. et al 2020.) The human brain
collects information on these skills converting them into a motor
programme, therefore when it is time to execute the skill, it
becomes habitual, and the brain refers to the motor programme.
Anticipation
This links into Anticipation, “the ability to recognise the outcome
of other actions prior to and during the execution of those
actions.” (Williams & Ford, 2013) cited in (Gredin, N. Victor, et al
2020.) This is important since the penalty taker must anticipate
where the goalkeeper is going to dive in order to place their shot
in the opposite direction.
Memory and Decision Making
If an athlete has previous success with decision making, it is
likely that they will succeed the next time they perform the skill,
therefore memory is important for the best sporting outcome.
Memory consists of the short-term memory (STM) and the long-
term memory (LTM), STM controls everything that is happening
in that moment and what is going on in the environment.
However, in contrast, LTM concerns previous experience and
performances. In fact, the LTM aids the STM during decision
making given that the performer can retrieve their successful
performances from their LTM and draw them into their STM in
order to increase the likelihood of success, for example they can
think back to past games where they successfully scored a
penalty and implement their technique into their shot at that
moment in time.
Vision
Vision can be split into foveal and peripheral. “Foveal vision
refers to the small area-rule of thumb: size of your thumbnail hold
at sleeve length-at which visual information can be gathered with
very high visual acuity” (Klostermann, A. et al 2020) this is the
point at which an individual can see most clearly, due to the
minority of vision being foveal, it is important that the athlete
considers their peripheral vision in order to see everything else
around them. This is significant when taking a penalty kick since
the player needs to encompass everything within their
surroundings before taking the kick, for example, the position of
the goalkeeper. However, the peripheral proves itself to be more
applicable in open play situations.
In order to improve one’s vision in high pressure situations, like a
penalty, it is important to focus on the position of gaze before
taking the shot. Research by Wood and Wilson (2010) looked at
the importance of gaze behaviour prior to taking a penalty, they
found that gaze and aiming intention were linked. This behaviour
is called the quiet eye (QE), “studies have demonstrated that
training a QE fixation may have benefits for performing under
pressure and in real competition” (Wood, G. and Wilson, M.R.,
2011.) Thus, in order to be most successful when taking a
penalty shot it is important to factor in the importance of training
the QE.
EFFECTOR
Motor Programs
“The motor program is usually thought of as an abstract memory
structure that is prepared in advance of the movement to be
produced,” (Schmidt, R.A., 1982) also referred to as schema. In the
executive phase the individual decided on what they wanted to do,
however, during this sector it focuses on the action of performing the
skill of taking the penalty shot. With reference to Schmidt and
Weisberg’s (2004) Human Performance Model, the brain must
retrieve the correct motor program from the long-term memory in
order to be able to perform the skill.
Factors affecting schema include observation and trial and error.
Regarding observation the athlete could watch someone they look
up to successfully perform a penalty kick with the aim of being able
to copy that technique. Trial and error consist of taking numerous
penalties in order to find the perfect technique that works for the
performer. The more the individual utilises the schema of taking a
penalty, the stronger the neuromuscular pathways become, this
means that the individual will find it easier to take a penalty.
CNS & PNS
There are two categories called the central nervous system (CNS)
and the peripheral nervous system (PNS.)
The CNS is comprised of the brain and the spinal cord, its role is to
control voluntary and involuntary movements, The PNS is made up
of the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system,
its job is to relay messages from the CNS to the rest of the body.
Neuromuscular junctions
“The neuromuscular junction (NMJ) plays a fundamental role in
transferring information from lower motor neuron to skeletal muscle
to generate movement.” (Jones, R.A., et al 2017.) Nerve impulses
cause chemicals called neurotransmitters to be released at the
motor end plate, this then leads to muscular contraction, in other
words, the athlete kicking the ball.
Motor Control
“Motor control is the study of how organisms make accurate goal-
directed movements.” (Shadmehr, R., et al 2010) The two main
system involved are called open loop control (OLC) and closed
loop control (CLC.)
Open loop control deals with rapid movement and therefore
requires no feedback as the skill is too fast to alter once performed.
Conversely, closed loop control requires feedback in order to adapt
the movement if performed incorrectly, this is gathered through
kinaesthesis and proprioception during the execution phase.
Closed loop control can be devised into type one and type two.
Type one involves feedback accumulated through muscle
movement. On the contrary, Type two includes the use of the
comparator in detecting the error in the movement, it also focuses
a lot more on the conscious and feedback of the skill.
A penalty kick would be considered as open loop control due to the
fact that once the shot has been taken there is nothing that the
individual can do to alter or manoeuvre the shot, as well as it being
too short of a movement to allow time for feedback.
OUTPUT
Feedback
“Feedback provides insights into the learning process” (Magill, R.A.
and Anderson, D.I., 2012)
It is devised into inherent and augmented.
One category of inherent feedback is intrinsic, this is split into
interoception and exteroception. Interoception deals with everything
from within the body, for example kinaesthesis, when the performer
takes the penalty kick, they can feel whether the ball made the right
connection with their foot.
Exteroception however, focuses more on audition and vision, more
specifically what an individual can hear and what they can see.
Augmented is the other type of feedback, this form of feedback it
delivered through an external source. An example may be from a
coach, crowd or other teammates.
Potential
distractor
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND
Knowledge of results
This type of feedback is based on the outcome of the performance,
one example may be understanding that the penalty went in via the
score board.
Knowledge of performance
Yet, this form of feedback is determined by the individual, this can
include kinaesthesis given that the performer will understand that they
were successful due to the technique in how they connected with the
ball.
Feedback
Success can also be decided through positive and negative feedback,
the use of both types will depend on the level of the performer.
Positive feedback can come from other teammates or coaches, and it
is likely that this will boost the motivation of the individual. If the
performer successfully scores a penalty, it is important that they
receive positive feedback so that they understand they are doing the
correct technique or movement.
However negative feedback can be more useful when working with
players at an elite or autonomous level. An individual player at the top
level will not require as much positive feedback as they are close to
perfecting the technique during every shot. Therefore, through the use
of negative feedback, it is more useful to take on board the criticism in
order to perfect their performance at the highest level.
Knowledge of results Knowledge of performance
Reference List

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Acta Medica Mediterranea, 36, pp.3073-3078.

• Gredin, N.V., Bishop, D.T., Williams, A.M. and Broadbent, D.P., 2020. The use of contextual priors and kinematic
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• Jones, R.A., Harrison, C., Eaton, S.L., Hurtado, M.L., Graham, L.C., Alkhammash, L., Oladiran, O.A., Gale, A.,
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• Klostermann, A., Vater, C., Kredel, R. and Hossner, E.J., 2020. Perception and action in sports. On the
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• Magill, R.A. and Anderson, D.I., 2012. The roles and uses of augmented feedback in motor skill acquisition. Skill
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• Schmidt, R.A., 1982. More on motor programs. Human motor behaviour: An introduction, pp.189-217.

• Shadmehr, R., Smith, M.A. and Krakauer, J.W., 2010. Error correction, sensory prediction, and adaptation in
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