MODULE: COMPARATIVE, HISTORICAL

EDUCATION AND PHILOSOPHICAL

ISSUES IN EDUCATION

Samuel KABERA

2024 VERSION
Tel:+250783122629, Email: skabera@uok.ac.rw
Course outline
 1. Comparative education
 2. Educational
Organization
 3. Education system
analysis
 4. Contemporary issues in
Education
 5. History of Education
 1. Colonial Education in
Rwanda and EA
 2. Education commissions and
laws
 3. Post Independence Era
 4. Schools of philosophy
 5. Philosophy of Education
 Philosophical issues in
Education and Teaching.
1. 1.The concept of comparative education
 King (1979) defines
comparative education as
the careful analysis of
educational systems, issues
and problems in two or more
countries within the context
of historical, socio-economic,
political, cultural, religions
and other influential factors.
 Hans (19740 defines
comparative education as
a process of discovering
the underlying principle
which govern the
development of all
regional systems of
education.
Concept of comparative education, Cnt’d
 Oadet and Bbuye (1997) define
comparative education as a study
of educational facts with a
purpose to understand how
educational structures and
policies come to be as they are.
This is to give reformers and
planners of education system
predictive and directive powers
Definitions
 Educational System: An educational system refers to a
structure of operation for the provision of education.
Educational systems are influenced by philosophies of policy
makers. Educational systems are normally classified around
countries, e.g. the Rwandan education system, Kenyan
education system and Ugandan Education System; or levels of
education, e.g. primary education, secondary education, and
tertiary education; or around regions e.g. African educational
system, Asian educational system, European educational
system, and American education system.
 Definitions
•International education: is a process
as well as a systematic study of the
process of organized learning that is
designed to increase people’s
knowledge and skills and that takes
place across international boundaries.
•Comparative Analysis: Comparative
analysis refers to a process of comparing and
contrasting two or more things, such as
educational systems, methods, theories or
policies with an aim of assessing the relative
strength, advantage or value of one thing
over another or others.
Aims of comparative education
 To stimulate critical reflection about our educational
system, its success and failures, strengths and
weaknesses
 To expose us to educational innovations and systems
that have positive outcomes.
 Purposes of comparative education as suggested
Noah (1985) and Kidd (1975):
 Aims of comparative education
Noah(1985)

 1. To describe educational systems, processes or outcomes

 2. To assist in development of educational institutions and
practices
 3. To highlight the relationship between education and
society
 4. To establish generalized statements about education
those are valid in more than one country.
Purpose of comparative education
 According to Kidd(1975), the most common goals for engaging in
comparative education are:
 1. To become better informed about the educational system of other
countries;
 2. To become better informed about the ways in which people in other
cultures have carried out certain social functions by means of
education;
 3. To become better informed about the historical roots of certain
activities and use this to develop criteria for assessing contemporary
development and testing possible outcomes
Cont...
4.To better understand the educational forms and systems
operating in one’s own country;
5. To satisfy an interest in how other human beings live and
learn;
6. To better understand oneself; and
7. To reveal how one’s own cultural biases and personal
attributes affect one’s judgment about possible ways of carrying
on learning transactions.
1.2 Importance of comparative education
To facilitate planning of educational programs, curricula,
teaching methods and activities:

Studies of educational systems that share similar problems or

those that have formulated policies to overcome similar
problems provide information for learning the possible
consequences.

e.g country case studies provide invaluable information for

decision-making regarding what to adopt, modify or avoid
Importance of comparative education

To facilitate educational assessment or evaluation:

Comparative education enhances evaluation of educational outcomes by

showing us how we are performing in a particular area of education compared
to other countries and this evaluation ideally should go beyond performance in
national examinations

e.g. Noah (1984) points out that comparative education facilitates the
establishment of comparative standards
Users of comparative education
The traditional users of comparative education have been the
policymakers, curriculum developers and educational scholars.

The educational scholars usually are interested in widening

their knowledge of educational philosophies and learning
theories as well as discovering the effects of various educational
practices in various social contexts.

Users of comparative education
• A fourth category of users of comparative education ideally
should be teachers
• However, most teachers do not perceive themselves as users
of comparative education because they associate
comparative education with policy making and curriculum
development.
• In this learning activity you have noticed that teachers can
also benefit from comparative education through a variety of
ways such as adoption of appropriate teaching methods and
self evaluation.
1.3. Factors influencing educations systems

 geographical,
 economic,
social,
cultural,
historical,
religions,
 political, language and technological.
 Geographical conditions

The geography of a particular area dictates the type of

building and equipment, means and methods of
transporting children to school, school going age of pupils
among others. However, there are three major
geographical aspects that influence the educational system
directly.
These are, climatic conditions, population distribution
and land configuration
 Geographical factors
 E.g. training of doctors in the tropics is likely to emphasize more
on tropical disease like malaria (climatic conditions)

 E.g. Urban vs rural areas ( different population distributions)

 e.g architectural structure of farm houses, school buildings,

village location …. because of closeness of family ties, boarding
schools for children are non-existence, except for the few who
come from far and inaccessible places on daily basis (land
configuration )
 Economics factors
 The economic factor determines the content and methods of an education
system.
 It is important to note that formal education is often possible where
production exceeds consumption. In indigenous traditional education people
were trained depending on the economic conditions and needs of the
community.
From an economic perspective, expenditure on education refers to the amount or
percentage of national revenue spent on education by both individuals and the
government. If the economic condition is poor, education becomes backward in
many aspects while if the economy of a country is strong, then educational aims
and the curriculum are given a special direction for making the country
prosperous.
 Social and cultural factors
Education aims at ensuring cultural continuity through
fostering the growth and development of national characteristics
that often act as stabilizing forces.

A close study and analysis of each education system will always

reveal the cultural concept and pattern of the community in
question. Also the social patterns of the people in any particular
community or country are reflected in its system of education.
 Historical factors

Each country of the world has its own history that shapes the nations aims,
aspirations, activities and destiny. This is often reflected through the
educational system.
Colonialism has been an important historical factor that can be said to have
shaped the education system of many African countries and others in the
world. For example, Christian missionaries in particular from Britain, France,
Holland, Germany, Switzerland, and USA among others, have largely
influenced the development of the education system in Africa.
In this regard, the present systems of education in many countries of Africa,
Asia, North and South America are actual products of post colonial influence.
 Political factors
There is also a close relationship between the national character and the
national system of education. Nationalism also as a political ideology influences
the system of education in a country. Nationalism could be defined as a
psychological feeling within a group which believes they have common outlook
and traditions based on myth of common ancestry.

 E.g The British colonial policy was based on the principle of decentralization
and on the building up of a commonwealth of nations each of which should be
free to develop its own culture and national character. Hence there is a close
relationship between national character and national system of education and
the former has been universally accepted as an important basis of national
system of education.
 Language factors
 Without one's own national language, no country can be said
to be strong. Language in itself is a symbol of the people. In the
former British colonies, pupils were taught in their vernacular in
the lower elementary or primary school curriculum.

The French colonies put more emphasis on French as a

medium of instruction. To date most of the inherited systems of
education still suffer from the effect of the colonial masters in
the school system and at large in the education system.
 Technological factors

With the emergence of computer technology, internet technology, this has

revolutionalised the whole education system especially in the developed
countries. Through information communication technology, home learning has
been made possible.

 Today the influence of technology in education cannot be ignored. Indeed

the use of information communication technology fully and be able to reap its
maximum benefits in the education system especially in the developing world.
 1.4. Pattern and reforms in Education
(Cummings, W. K., 2010)

Introduction

 Basic education is generally believed to have occurred in the Nordic countries.

For example, in Sweden, the national church, with the urging of the king, exhorted
parents and communities to foster popular literacy, and the literacy rate is believed to
have increased from 20% in the seventeenth century to 80% by the early nineteenth
century (Johansson 1981). (Nordic countries are a group of countries in Northern
Europe. These countries include Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Sweden, Norway, and
the territories of the Aland Islands and the Faroe Islands. Though often confused as
such, Scandinavia is not equivalent to the Nordic countries.)
 Cnt,d
But, this was largely accomplished through home education stimulated by church
examinations of each family’s progress; in other words, the literacy improvement was
not accompanied by the development of an elaborated educational system, and partly
for that reason, it did not gain as much international recognition as subsequent reforms
in Germany and France.
Dates of compulsory education
Educational patterns
The first attempts to systematize modern education occurred in the European continent (which is best
broken into the Prussian and French variants, with the Lowlands as a third possibility), then by the
English, the American, the Japanese, and the Russian socialist patterns.
Each modern pattern was unified by a core set of ideals (much like the genotype of biology) that can be
at least partially captured in a slogan such as nineteenth century aristocratic England’s ideal of the
educated gentleman or, in the American case, the continuous development of the individual.
Over subsequent decades, these national ideals were continually refined but they were never
fundamentally altered and resulted in 6 cases under consideration.
 Cnt,d
These patterns were developed in the core nations of the world system and later
diffused by their respective colonial and/or ideological systems.
Thus, the French variant became influential in Africa, Indochina, and Latin America;
the English pattern was widely diffused through Asia and Africa; the American pattern
had some early influence in Asia; since World War II has had global influence, the
Japanese pattern had a profound impact on Korea and Taiwan and more limited
influence elsewhere; and the Russian Socialist pattern influenced China, Eastern
Europe, Cuba, and many other developing societies
Factors influencing educational reforms

• Educational reform is closely associated with political shifts; economic forces are an important contextual factor.

• The magnitude and abruptness of the political shift influences the extent of the educational reform.

• Political shifts are closely associated with major class realignments, and these in turn influence the focus of the

educational reform;

• Educational reform, while bold on rhetoric, tends to focus on a limited set of changes concerning a particular level

of schooling at least in the short run.

• Educational reform, while often mentioning foreign examples in its rhetoric, tends to draw extensively on

indigenous resources, indigenous ideals, and indigenous educational practices (both past and present).

• Even after a seemingly dramatic educational reform, the memory of past ideals and practices will persist to exert

influence on the new and even possibly at some later date to replace the new.

• Thus, educational reform, in its particulars, tends to turn inward reproducing and creating indigenous patterns,

rather than outward, converging on internationally celebrated patterns.

 1. 5 Education and development
Education is a human right. And, like other human
rights, it cannot be taken for granted because it is an
essential tool for achieving sustainability

Current economic development trends are not

sustainable. Therefore, public awareness, education, and
training are key to moving society toward sustainability.
 Education for sustainable development (ESD)

People argue about the meaning of sustainable development

and whether or not it is attainable. They have different visions of
what sustainable societies will look like and how they will
function.
 Three terms are often used synonymously and
interchangeably:
education for sustainable development (ESD),
education for sustainability (EFS), and
sustainability education (SE).
 ESD Cnt,d

oESD is used frequently at the international level and within UN

documents

oLocally or nationally, the ESD effort may be named or described

in many ways because of language and cultural differences. As
with all work related to sustainable development, the name and
the content must be locally relevant and culturally appropriate
 Sustainable development
 "Sustainable development is development that meets the
needs of the present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs" (World
Commission on Environment and Development, 1987, p 43).
Sustainable development is generally thought to have three
components: environment, society, and economy. The well-
being of these three areas is intertwined, not separate. For
example, a healthy, prosperous society relies on a healthy
environment to provide food and resources, safe drinking water,
and clean air for its citizens.
Education for sustainable development

Nations have the sovereign right to exploit

their own resources, but without causing
environmental damage beyond their borders.
Nations shall develop international laws to
provide compensation for damage that activities
under their control cause to areas beyond their
borders.
 Principles of sustainable development
The Rio Declaration on Environment and Development fleshes out
the definition by listing 18 principles of sustainability. Following
are some examples :
People are entitled to a healthy and productive life in harmony
with nature.
Development today must not undermine the development and
environment needs of present and future generations.
 ESD (Cnt’d)
In order to achieve sustainable development, environmental
protection shall constitute an integral part of the development
process, and cannot be considered in isolation from it.
Eradicating poverty and reducing disparities in living standards in
different parts of the world are essential to achieve sustainable
development and meet the needs of the majority of people.
 ESD (Cnt’d)

Sustainable development requires better scientific

understanding of the problems. Nations should share knowledge
and innovative technologies to achieve the goal of sustainability.
The full participation of women is essential to achieve
sustainable development. The creativity, ideals and courage of
youth and the knowledge of indigenous people are needed too.
Nations should recognize and support the identity, culture and
interests of indigenous people.
etc
 Sustainable education
The relationship between education and sustainable
development is complex.
Research has shown that education can improve agricultural
productivity, enhance the status of women, reduce population
growth rates, enhance environmental protection, and generally
raise the standard of living. But the relationship is not linear.
But some levels of education are enough to affect some
domains of development:
 Sustainable education
The relationship between education and sustainable
development is complex.
Research has shown that education can improve agricultural
productivity, enhance the status of women, reduce population
growth rates, enhance environmental protection, and generally
raise the standard of living. But the relationship is not linear.
But some levels of education are enough to affect some
domains of development:
Sustainable education

E.g.: basic education is key to a nation's ability to develop and achieve

sustainability targets.
 four to six years of education is the minimum threshold for increasing
agricultural productivity : Literacy and numeracy allow farmers to adapt to
new agricultural methods, cope with risk, and respond to market signals.
Literacy also helps farmers mix and apply chemicals (e.g., fertilizers and
pesticides) according to manufacturers' directions, thereby reducing the
risks to the environment and human health.
Note: Effects of education on agriculture are greatest when the
proportion of females educated to threshold level equals that of males
etc
ESD (Cnt’d)
Another educational threshold is primary
education for women: At least a primary
education is required before birthrate drops and
children's education improve
Education directly affects sustainability plans in
the following three areas:
 ESD (Cnt’d)

Implementation. An educated citizen is vital to implementing

informed and sustainable development. In fact, a national
sustainability plan can be enhanced or limited by the level of
education attained by the nation's citizens. Nations with high
illiteracy rates and unskilled workforces have fewer development
options. An educated workforce is key to moving beyond an
extractive and agricultural economy.
 ESD (Cnt’d)
Decision making. Good community-based decisions - which will affect
social, economic, and environmental well-being - also depend on educated
citizens. For example, a community with an abundance of skilled labor and
technically trained people can persuade a corporation to locate a new
information-technology and software-development facility nearby. Citizens
can also act to protect their communities by analyzing reports and data that
address community issues and helping shape a community response. For
example, citizens who were concerned about water pollution reported in a
nearby watershed started monitoring the water quality of local streams.
 ESD (Cnt’d)

Quality of life. Education is also central to improving quality of

life. Education raises the economic status of families; it improves
life conditions, lowers infant mortality, and improves the
educational attainment of the next generation, thereby raising
the next generation's chances for economic and social well-
being. Improved education holds both individual and national
implications.
 Important readings

Archer, M. (1977). Social origins of educational systems. Beverly Hills: Sage.

Cummings, W. K. (2003). The institutions of education. Oxford: Symposium
Books.
Cummings, W. K. (2010). How Educational Systems Form and Reform .
Oxford: Symposium Books.

Muller, D. K., Ringer, F., & Simon, B. (1987). The rise of the modern
educational system:
structural change and social reproduction 1870–1920. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
 Activities

 Define comparative education using your own words

 Discuss the advantages of prospective teachers studying comparative

education

 How can you as a teacher in classroom, make profitable use of

comparative education?
2. Educational Organization

2. 1. Policy and planning of Rwandan education system

2.2. Development of Education systems in Rwanda and USA

 2.1. Policy and planning of Rwanda Education
systems
 Rwanda’s government remains committed to achieving the UN
Millenium Development Goals (MDGs) number 2 and 3, which call
for the opportunity for all children to complete a full course of
primary education and for gender disparities in primary and
secondary schooling to be eliminated by 2015 respectively. The
country has made great strides in achieving these goals, with a net
primary school enrollment rate of 91.7%, and a male to female
student ratio of 1.02 as of 2010 (IPAR, 2012a). It appears that by
2015 Rwanda will have achieved or at least have come very close to
achieving MDG 2 and the education aspects of MDG 3.
 Cnt,d
 After the 1994 genocide, the education sector, passed through an emergency
situation during which the main objective was to reshape and try to restart the
education system which had broken down. Then the1998 education Sector
Policy was adopted.
 With the 1998 education sector policy, a new orientation for education was
defined and a new restructured Rwandan education system has been and still is
slowly, but surely, being set up. (e.g the 2016 shift from the knowledge based
curriculum to CBC)
 At present, education, as well as other sectors of national life, must follow the
principles set out in Vision 2020. In this way, it shall play its role in the socio-
economic development of the country
The Mission of MINEDUC
 The mission of the Ministry of Education is to
transform the Rwandan citizen into skilled human
capital for socio-economic development of the
country by ensuring equitable access to quality
education focusing on combating illiteracy,
promotion of science and technology, critical
thinking and positive values
 In addition to meeting the education policy goals set forth by international
organizations, Rwanda maintains its own strategic goals which are discussed in
two primary documents: Rwanda Vision 2020, and the Economic Development and
Poverty Reduction Strategy
 Rwandan Education Policy

The Overall Goal of the EDPRS is to: Achieve sustainable

economic growth and social development
The Purpose of the Education Sector is: Access to quality,
equitable and effective education for all Rwandans
Rwanda Vision 2020, emphasizes education’s role in creating human capital to

bolster Rwanda’s economy. The policy calls for training and educating people at all levels,

including adults that lack the basic education and skills necessary for employment.
 ****Rwandan Education System

 In summary, the policy goals of Rwanda’s education system aimed at creating an educated
workforce with the technological knowhow to engage in service sector employment.

 These goals reflect the government’s overall plan for Rwanda to become a technology hub

in Africa, which is based on the fact that the nation’s limited stock of natural resources and

arable land necessitate its transformation into a knowledge economy rather than one based

on industry or agriculture.
International law, Education and Rwanda

 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), which states

that: “Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at

least in the elementary and fundamental stages. Elementary

education shall be compulsory...education shall be directed to the

full development of human personality and to the strengthening of

respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms. It shall promote

understanding, tolerance and friendship among racial or religious

HISTORICAL FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION
 QUESTIONS RAISED BY THIS TOPIC
And objectives
What kinds of education we find out world widely before
colonization?
Is the recent trend of education taking in account the
traditional types of education?
What is the impact of globalization on our way of
learning/teaching?
Does education responding to the needs of our society?
How can we apply the types of educational knowledge in
our daily duties and improve our job as Teachers?
I. Education in prehistory
Question: What are the main periods of prehistory?
 Most of human history lies in prehistory, the period before the
use of writing, and before written history.
 Throughout pre-history, most education was achieved orally and
through observation and imitation.
 From the origin of our species until about 10,000 BC, most humans
lived as hunter-gatherers and doing fishing(period of primitive
communism as per anthropologists like Karl Polanyi). Some
were settled in a given locality/region and others exhibited a
nomadic lifestyle across a large territory
Cont`d
These bands or tribes had traditions, beliefs, values, practices
and local knowledge which were passed orally for generations from
person to person. The young learned informally from their parents,
extended family and kin
Traditional knowledge were expressed through stories, legends,
folklore, rituals, and songs, without the need for a
writing system. Tools to aid this process include poetic devices
such as rhyme and alliteration. These methods are illustrative
of orality and reflect what is usually called social
representation through myths and believes .
Cont`d
 The advent of agriculture prompted the Neolithic Revolution, when access
to food surplus led to the formation of permanent human settlements, the
domestication of some animals and the use of metal tools and discovery
of fire.
 Settlement, agriculture and metalwork brought new knowledge and skills to be
learned and taught by each generation. As communities grew larger, there was
more opportunity for some members to specialize in one skill or activity or
another, becoming priests, artisans, traders, builders or labourers.
 This is the commencement of social stratification and classes formation
around the world and education was following the change accordingly.
Cont`d
In large settlements, social stratification began to develop, a
hierarchical arrangement of social classes or castes within the
society. There might be a king and nobles. There were often priests
or other religious leaders, because religious beliefs in deities or
spirits often formed an important part of a culture. In some
societies, the status of women was lower than that of men; in
some tribes, even, there were slaves.
 A person's social class, caste or gender might in turn determine or
limit the occupations which he or she might follow and the
education that he or she would receive.
II. Education in History
Question: List the main periods of history
The history of education is the history of teaching and learning
. Indeed, each generation, since the beginning of human existence,
has sought to pass on cultural and social values, traditions,
morality, religion and skills to the next generation.
The passing on of culture is also known as enculturation and the
learning of social values and behaviours is socialization. The
history of the curricula of such education reflects human history
itself, the history of knowledge, beliefs, skills and cultures of
humanity.
Cont`d
 During antiquity As the customs and knowledge of ancient civilizations
became more complex, many skills would have been learned from an
experienced person on the job, in animal husbandry, agriculture, fishing,
preparation and preservation of food, construction, stone work, metal work,
boat building, the making of weapons and defenses, the military skills and many
other occupations.

 With the development of writing, it became possible for stories, poetry,

knowledge, beliefs, and customs to be recorded and passed on more accurately to
people out of earshot and to future generations. In many societies, the spread of
literacy was slow; orality and illiteracy remained predominant for much of the
population for centuries and even millennia like in Africa
Cont`d
Literacy in preindustrial societies was associated with civil
administration, law, long distance trade or commerce, and
religion. A formal schooling in literacy was often only available to a
small part of the population, either at religious institutions or for
the wealthy who could afford to pay for their tutors. The earliest
known universities, or places of higher education, started
teaching a millennium or more ago.
But Universal education of all children in literacy has been a
recent development, not occurring in many countries until after
1850.
Cont`d
 Schools, colleges and universities have not been the only methods of formal
education and training. Many professions have additional training
requirements, and in Europe, from the Middle- Ages until recent times, the skills
of a trade were not generally learnt in a classroom, but rather by serving an
apprenticeship(see formal, informal and non formal education even
today).

 Starting in about 3500 BC, various writing systems were developed in ancient
civilizations around the world. In Egypt fully developed hieroglyphs that could
be read in rebus fashion were in use as early as 3400 BC. Later, the world's
oldest known alphabet was developed in central Egypt around 2000 BC from a
hieroglyphic prototype
Cont`d
The Phoenician writing system was adapted from the
Proto-Canaanite script in around the 11th century BC,
which in turn borrowed ideas from
Egyptian hieroglyphics. This script was adapted by the
Greeks. A variant of the early Greek alphabet gave rise to
the Etruscan alphabet, and its own descendants, such as
the Latin alphabet. Other descendants from the
Greek alphabet include the Cyrillic alphabet, used to
write Russian, among others.
Cont`d
 The Phoenician system was also adapted into the Aramaic script, from
which the Hebrew script and also that of Arabic are descended. In China,
the early oracle bone script has survived on tens of thousands of
oracle bones dating from around 1400-1200 BC in the Shang Dynasty.
Out of more than 2500 written characters in use in China in about 1200 BC,
as many as 1400 are identifiable as the source of later standard Chinese
characters.
 Of several pre-Columbian scripts in Mesoamerica, the one that appears
to have been best developed, and the one to be deciphered the most, is the
Maya script(see Maya, Azteque and Maya empires). The earliest
inscriptions which are identifiably Maya date to the 3rd century BC
Cont`d
 Other surfaces used for early writing include wax-covered writing boards
(used, as well as clay tablets, by the Assyrians), sheets or strips of bark
from trees (in Indonesia, Tibet and the Americas), the thick palm-like
leaves of a particular tree, the leaves then punctured with a hole and
stacked together like the pages of a book (these writings in India and
South East Asia include Buddhist scriptures and Sanskrit literature in
India)
 Also parchment, made of goatskin that had been soaked and scraped to
remove hair, which was used from at least the 2nd century BC, vellum,
made from calfskin, and wax tablets which could be wiped clean to
provide a fresh surface (in Roman times).
Cont`d
 During antiquity, in many early civilizations, education was associated with wealth and
the maintenance of authority, or with prevailing philosophies, beliefs, or religion.

 The Middle East In what became Mesopotamia, the early logographic system of
cuneiform script took many years to master. Thus only a limited number of individuals
were hired as scribes to be trained in its reading and writing. Only royal offspring
and sons of the rich and professionals such as scribes, physicians, and temple
administrators, went to school.
 Most boys were taught their father's trade or were apprenticed out to learn a trade. Girls
had to stay home with their mothers to learn housekeeping and cooking, and to look
after the younger children. Later, when a syllabic script became more widespread, more
of the Mesopotamian population became literate.
Cont`d
For example, in ancient Egypt, literacy was concentrated
among educated elite of scribes. Only people from
certain backgrounds were allowed to train to become
scribes, in the service of temple, pharaonic, and military
authorities.
The hieroglyph(see Champollion translation) system was
always difficult to learn, but in later centuries was purposely
made even more so, as this preserved the scribes' status. It
is the same with china ……
Cont`d
 During the Zhou Dynasty (1045 BC to 256 BC), there were five national schools in
the capital city, Pi Yong (an imperial school, located in a central location) and
four other schools for the aristocrats and nobility, including Shang Xiang. The
schools mainly taught the Six Arts: rites, music, archery, charioteering, calligraphy,
and mathematics. According to the Book of Rituals, at age twelve, boys learned arts
related to ritual (i.e. music and dance) and when older, archery and chariot driving.

 Girls learned ritual, correct deportment, silk production and weaving. It was during
the Zhou Dynasty that the origins of native Chinese philosophy also developed.
Confucius (551 BC – 479 BC) founder of Confucianism, was a Chinese philosopher
who made a great impact on later generations of Chinese, and on the curriculum of
the Chinese educational system for much of the following 2000 years.
Cont`d
 In the city-states of ancient Greece, most Education was private, except
in Sparta. For example, in Athens, during the 5th and 4th century BC,
aside from two years military training, the state played little part in
schooling. Anyone could open a school and decide the curriculum.
Parents could choose a school offering the subjects they wanted their
children to learn, at a monthly fee they could afford.
 Most parents, even the poor, sent their sons to schools for at least a few
years, and if they could afford it from around the age of seven until
fourteen, learning gymnastics (including athletics, sport and
wrestling), music (including poetry, drama and history) and literacy.
Girls rarely received formal education.
Cont`d
 The education system in the Greek city-state of Sparta was entirely
different, designed to create warriors with complete obedience,
courage, and physical perfection. At the age of seven, boys were taken
away from their homes to live in school dormitories or military
barracks.

 There they were taught sports, endurance and fighting, and little
else, with harsh discipline. Most of the population was illiterate. The
first schools in Ancient Rome arose by the middle of the 4th century BC.
These schools were concerned with the basic socialization and
rudimentary Education of young Roman children.
Cont`d
 During the Early Middle Ages, the monasteries of the Catholic Church were the centres
of Education and literacy, preserving the Church's selection from Latin learning and
maintaining the art of writing. Prior to their formal establishment, many medieval
universities were run for hundreds of years as Christian cathedral schools or monastic schools (
Scholae monasticae), in which monks and nuns taught classes; evidence of these immediate
forerunners of the later University at many places .

 The first medieval institutions generally considered to be Universities were established in

Italy, France, and England in the late 11th and the 12th centuries for the study of arts,
law, medicine, and theology. These Universities evolved from much older Christian cathedral
schools and monastic schools, and it is difficult to define the date at which they became true
Universities, although the lists of Studia Generalia for higher Education in Europe held by the
Vatican are a useful guide. Ireland became known as the Island of saints and scholars.
Monasteries were built all over Ireland and these became centres of great learning
Cont`d
 During the reign of Charlemagne, King of the Franks whose empire united most of
Western Europe for the first time since the Romans, there was a flowering of
scholarship, literature, art, and architecture sometimes referred to as the
Carolingian Renaissance.

 After the decline of the Carolingian dynasty, the rise of the Saxon Dynasty in
Germany was accompanied by the Ottonian Renaissance. Cambridge and many
other universities were founded at this time. Cathedral schools and monasteries
remained important throughout the Middle Ages; at the Third Lateran Council of
1179 the Church mandated that priests provide the opportunity of a free education to
their flocks, and the 12th and 13th century renascence known as the
Scholastic Movement was spread through the monasteries.
Cont`d
 In Islamic world, the Academy of Gundishapur, originally the intellectual center of the
Sassanid Empire and subsequently a Muslim centre of learning, offered training in
medicine, philosophy, theology and science. The Faculties were versed not only in the
Zoroastrian and Persian traditions, but in Greek and Indian learning as well. The
House of Wisdom in Bagdad was a library, translation and educational centre. Works on
astrology, mathematics, agriculture, medicine, and philosophy were translated.
 Drawing on Persian, Indian and Greek texts, including those of Pythagoras, Plato, Aristotle,
Hippocrates, Euclid, Plotinus, Galen, Sushruta, Charaka, Aryabhata and Brahmagupta—the
scholars accumulated a great collection of knowledge in the world, and built on it through
their own discoveries. The House was an unrivalled centre for the study of humanities and
for sciences, including mathematics, astronomy, medicine, chemistry, zoology and
geography. Baghdad was known as the world's richest city and centre for intellectual
development of the time, and had a population of over a million, the largest in its
time.
Cont`d
 Under the Ottoman Empire, the towns of Bursa and Edirne became major centers
of learning. The Ottoman system of Kulliye, a building complex containing a
mosque, a hospital, madrassa, and public kitchen and dining areas,
revolutionized the education system, making learning accessible to a wider public
through its free meals, health care and sometimes free accommodation.

 In the 15th and 16th centuries, the town of Timbuktu in the West African nation
of Mali became an Islamic centre of learning with students coming from as far
away as the Middle East. The town was home to the prestigious Sankore
University and other madrasas. The primary focus of these schools was the
teaching of the Qur'an, although broader instruction in fields such as logic,
astronomy, and history also took place.
Cont`d
 In China, although there are more than 40,000 Chinese characters in
written Chinese, many are rarely used. Studies have shown that full literacy
in the Chinese language requires knowledge of only between three and four
thousand characters. In China, three oral texts were used to teach children
by rote memorization the written characters of their language and the
basics of Confucian thoughts.
 The Thousand Character Classic, a Chinese poem, was used for more than a
millennium as a primer for teaching Chinese characters to children. The
poem is composed of 250 phrases of four characters each, thus containing
exactly one thousand unique characters, and was sung in the same way that
children learning the Latin alphabet may use the "alphabet song".
Cont`d
 During the Sui Dynasty, for the first time, an examination system was explicitly
instituted for a category of local talents. The merit-based
imperial examination system for evaluating and selecting officials gave rise to
schools that taught the Chinese classic texts and continued in use for 1,300 years,
until the end the Qing Dynasty, being abolished in 1911 in favour of Western
education methods.

 The core of the curriculum for the imperial civil service examinations was the
Four Books, representing a foundational introduction to Confucianism. Theoretically,
any male adult in China, regardless of his wealth or social status, could become a
high-ranking government official by passing the imperial examination,
although under some dynasties members of the merchant class were excluded.
Cont`d
For Japan, the history of education in Japan dates back at
least to the 6th century, when Chinese learning was
introduced at the Yamato court. Foreign civilizations
have often provided new ideas for the development of
Japan's own culture. Chinese teachings and ideas
flowed into Japan from the sixth to the 9th century.
Along with the introduction of Buddhism came the
Chinese system of writing and its literary tradition,
shintoism and Confucianism.
Cont`d
 Education in Modern times, modern systems of education in Europe derive their origins
from the schools of the High Middle Ages. Most schools during this era were founded upon
religious principles with the primary purpose of training the clergy. Many of the earliest
universities, such as the University of Paris founded in 1160, had a Christian basis. In addition
to this, a number of secular universities existed, such as the University of Bologna , founded
in 1088.

 Free education for the poor was officially mandated by the Church at the
Third Lateran Council (1179), which decreed that every cathedral must assign a master to
teach boys to poor to pay the regular fee; parishes and monasteries also established free
schools teaching at least basic literary skills. With few exceptions, priests and brothers
taught locally, and their salaries were frequently subsidized by towns. Private, independent
schools reappeared in medieval Europe during this time, but they, too, were religious
in nature and mission.
Cont`d
and was conducted in Latin, the lingua franca of educated Western Europe throughout the Middle Ages
and Renaissance.
 In northern Europe for example, this clerical education was largely superseded by forms of
elementary schooling following the Reformation.
 In Central Europe, the 17th century scientist and educator John Amos Comenius promulgated a
reformed system of universal education that was widely used in Europe. This growth resulted in
increased government interest in education.

 In the 1760s, for instance, Ivan Betskoy was appointed by the Russian Tsarina, Catherine II, as
educational advisor. He proposed to educate young Russians of both sexes in state boarding schools,
aimed at creating "a new race of men". Betskoy set forth a number of arguments for general
education of children rather than specialized one: "in regenerating our subjects by an
education founded on these principles, we will create new citizens." Some of his ideas were
implemented in the Smolny Institute that he established for noble girls in Saint Petersburg .
Cont`d
 During contemporary time, in the late 19th century, most of West, Central,
and parts of East Europe began to provide elementary education in reading,
writing, and arithmetic, partly because politicians believed that education
was needed for orderly political behavior. As more people became literate, they
realized that most secondary education was only open to those who could afford it.
This impact on colonial education with missionaries specifically.

 Having created primary education, the major nations had to give further attention
to secondary education by the time of World War II. In the 20th century, new
directions in education included, in Italy, Maria Montessori's Montessori schools;
and in Germany, Rudolf Steiner's development of Waldorf education.
Cont`d
For example in France, the development of their
educational system from Charlemagne to Napoleon,
church is still influencing it. The modern era of French
education begins at the end of the 19th century.
Jules Ferry, a lawyer holding the office of Minister of
Public Instruction in the 1880s, is widely credited for
creating the modern Republican school/l'école
républicaine.
Cont`d
 Recent world-wide trends
 Nowadays some kind of education is compulsory to all people in most
countries. Due to population growth and the proliferation of compulsory
education, UNESCO has calculated that in the next 30 years more people will
receive formal education than in all of human history thus far.
 Overall, illiteracy has greatly decreased in recent years. In some countries this
has been the result of deliberate government action. For example, in Cuba the
illiteracy rate was for many years less than that in the USA.
 Illiteracy and the percentage of populations without any schooling have
decreased in the past several decades. For example, the percentage of
population without any schooling decreased from 36% in 1960 to 25% in 2000.
Rwanda case
Education in Rwanda was informal and
delivered largely through the family. Training
was also delivered through amatorero and
imbohero training schools. These courses
included the military and war skills, iron smith
and foundry, poetry, basket making, etc.
The German and belgian period
 In 1899 Rwanda became a German colony. After the defeat of the
Germans during First World War, subsequently in 1919, Rwanda
became a mandate territory of the League of Nations under the
administration of Belgium. The Germans and the Belgians
administered Rwanda through a system of indirect rule. In February
1900, the first catholic missionaries came to Nyanza Royal Court and
were allowed to settle in Save and progressively they managed to
propagate their evangelical mission over the country. Belgian system
was based on paternalism and parentalism, no elite no problem.
To succeed their evangelical campaign, they created small
schools whose curriculum contained elementary
arithmetic, reading and writing. In addition they
established some sites (carpentries, masonries, etc) near
the Churches and agricultural yards were organized.
Therefore, Churches with these different training fields
became Education centers. In short, the German
protectorate did not sufficiently implement its education
system in Rwanda.
Cont`d
Towards 1960, period in which most of African countries
became independent, the desire of reforming their
education systems was expressed over the entire continent.
Guided by UNESCO, Ministers of Education of African
countries met in Addis-Ababa from 15 to 25 May 1961.
Having known the Education was the key factor of
development, they fixed educational guiding objectives
from the period commencing from 1961 to 1980 and some
were the following:

Provide Free and compulsory Universal Primary
1.

Education.
2. Ensure Secondary Education to 30% of children
who completed Primary school.
3. Ensure Higher Education in Africa to about 20
% of secondary school leavers.
Following these objectives, Rwanda decided to implement:
 1. Education of 100% at primary level as soon as possible. Education
should be compulsory and free to children from the age of7 and 13.
 2. From 1961 to 1962, the double vacation was implemented in the first
Cycle in order to educate as possible in big number of children.
CERAI, CERAR …will be replacing colonial professional school, it
seems that there will be no evolution.
 The case of regional equilibrium and sex one even ethnic will be
characterizing the RWANDA system showing the lack of democracy
and vision.
PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
Introduction
 The word education is used sometimes to signify the activity, process, or
enterprise of educating or being educated and sometimes to signify the
discipline or field of study taught in schools of education that concerns itself
with this activity, process, or enterprise.

 As an activity or process, education may be formal or informal, private or

public, individual or social, but it always consists in cultivating dispositions
(abilities, skills, knowledge, beliefs, attitudes, values, and character traits) by
certain methods. As a discipline, education studies or reflects on the activity or
enterprise by asking questions about its aims, methods, effects, forms, history,
costs, value, and relations to society.
Cont.…
 The philosophy of education may be either the philosophy of the process
of education or the philosophy of the discipline of education.

 That is, it may be part of the discipline in the sense of being concerned
with the aims, forms, methods, or results of the process of educating or
being educated; or it may be metadisciplinary in the sense of being
concerned with the concepts, aims, and methods of the discipline.
However, even in the later case it may be thought of as part of the
discipline, just as metaphilosophy is thought of as a part of philosophy,
although the philosophy of science is not regarded as a part of science.
Cont..
 Historically, philosophies of education have
usually taken the first form, but under the
influence of analytical philosophy, they have
sometimes taken the second.
Cont.…
 In the first form, philosophy of education was traditionally developed
by philosophers-for example, Aristotle, Augustine, and John Locke –
as part of their philosophical systems, in the context of their ethical
theories. However, in the twentieth century philosophy of education
tended to be developed in schools of education in the context of what
is called foundations of education, thus linking it with other parts of
the discipline of education – educational history, psychology, and
sociology – rather than with other parts of philosophy. It was also
developed by writers such as Paul Goodman and Robert M.Hutchins.
Cont.…
It is not easy to say what exactly philosophy is, how to study it, or


how to do it. Philosophy, like all other field, is unique. The reason
why it is so difficult for us to categorize philosophy is because
philosophizing makes up so much of what we do during life- there
is no escaping it for anyone who wants to think clearly or think
about important subjects. Hence, we need to learn how to do it well.
Cont.…
Defining and explaining philosophy is not an easy task the very nature of


the subject seems to resist description. The problem is that philosophy, in

one way or another, ends up touching upon nearly every aspect of human
life. Philosophy has something to say when it comes to science, art,
religion, politics, medicine, and a host of other topics. This is also why a
basic grounding in philosophy is so important for all mankind.
Cont.…
In this introductory topic of philosophy, we will explore what philosophy mean, what


are the main branches of philosophy and for philosophy of education, what kind of study
of education that is philosophical in common to the meaning of education. In short, this
topic is an introduction to philosophy for future teachers seeking to fulfill the first of
their university philosophy requirements and intended to introduce you to philosophical
questions, to make you aware of how some of history’s greatest philosophers have
approached those questions and what they have had to say about them, to help you
articulate philosophical concerns of your own and, most importantly to learn how to
address them.
PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
1. Philosophy
The word philosophy literally means love of wisdom. It is derived from two
Greek words ie. “Phileo”(love) and “Sophia”(wisdom). This tells us something
about the nature of philosophy, but not much, because many disciplines seek
wisdom. Since times immemorial there have been various pursuits for
unfolding the mystery of the universe, birth and death, sorrow and job.
Cont..
Various ages have produced different thoughts
throwing light upon the mystic region. The
ultimate truth is yet to be found out. This eternal
quest for truth lends the origin of philosophy. A
love of wisdom is the essence for any
philosophy investigation.
Cont..
Philosophy is an academic discipline that exercises
reason and logic in an attempt to understand reality
and answer fundamental questions about
knowledge, life, morality and human nature.
Cont..
Through the ages, philosophers have sought to answer such
abstract questions as: is the world really as it appears to us? Do
we have genuine freedom of choice? What is the meaning and
purpose of life? How do we know what we know? Does God
exist? What does it mean to possess consciousness? What is the
mind? And , what is the value of morals?
Cont..
Philosophers attempt to answer such questions through the philosophical
method. The method usually begins when a philosopher examines his own
beliefs and begins to doubt their validity. Presumably, the thinkers conducted
their inquiries through reason and observation, rather than through tradition or
revelation
From his doubt, questions emerge, before answering a question, the
philosopher thoroughly analyzes it to ensure it is clearly and properly defined.
Cont..
This helps narrow the path to the most precise answer.
 Next, the
philosopher proposes possible answers to the question and provides
reasoned arguments to support each one. The arguments are then criticized
by other philosophers, who may give rebuttals. Through this process of
criticism and judgment known as dialectic, philosophers attempt to prove
the rationality of their beliefs and discover fundamental truths.
Cont..
The subject of philosopher inquiry is the reality itself. There are different
schools of philosophy depending on the answers they seek to the question of
reality for understanding of man, nature and the universe. There are different
branches of philosophy – epistemology, metaphysics, etc. there are different
fields of philosophy such as educational philosophy, social philosophy, political
philosophy, economic philosophy etc as we have seen above. There are also
different philosophical approaches such as idealism, pragmatism, and so on.
Cont…
Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems concerning matters such as existence,
knowledge, truth, beauty, law, justice, validity, mind, and language (teichmann& Evans, 1999).

According to Grayling (1998), philosophy is distinguished from other ways of addressing these
questions, such as mysticism or mythology, by its critical, generally systematic approach and its
reliance on reasoned argument. Moreover, philosophy is rationally thinking, of a more or less
systematic kind about the general nature of the world – metaphysics or theory of existence, the
justification of belief-epistemology or theory of knowledge, and the conduct of life-ethics or theory
of value ( Quinton, 1995).
Cont...
Philosophy is a subject at the core of most humanity courses. It is the foundation of
knowledge. It is the standard by which ideas are integrated and understood. Most
academic subjects have a philosophy, for example the philosophy of science, the
philosophy of mathematics, the philosophy of logic, the philosophy of low, and the
philosophy of history.

In addition, a range of academic subjects have emerged to deal with areas which would
have historically been the subject of philosophy. These include psychology,
anthropology, and science.
Cont..
These very abstract questions can arise out of our everyday experience. The
analysis of reasons and arguments is a particular province of philosophy. In
fact, in as much as philosophy has a distinctive method, it is this: the
construction, criticism and analysis of arguments. Philosophical skills are
applicable in any where arguments are important, not just in the realms of
abstract speculation. For this reason, a basic grounding in philosophy is
extremely valuable in whatever academic subject.
Cont..
A philosophy is a system of beliefs about reality being one integrated view of the world.
It includes an understanding of the nature of existence, man, and his role in the world.
Philosophy is a necessary product of man’s rational mind. To live, man must gain
knowledge of the world.

To understand the world, man must form conclusions about its very nature. For
instance, to gain knowledge of particular objects, man must recognize that objects have
identity. He must recognize that conclusions are possible because the world does exist,
and exists in a particular way.
Cont..
Philosophy provides the framework for which man can
understand the world. It provides the premises by which man
can discover truth, and uses his mind to support his life.

Every man has an understanding of the world. Every man

must have a philosophy, even if it is never made explicit. It is
notoriously difficult to give a good general definition of
philosophy
Cont..
To conclude what philosophies, consider this
statement : PHILOSOPHY = a critical examination
of reality characterized by rational inquiry that aims
at the Truth for the sake of attaining wisdom.
Branches of philosophy

The discipline of philosophy has traditionally

been broken into five main branches or areas
of study.
 Metaphysics or ontology is the study of reality or existence.
Some of the questions that metaphysics deals with are : what is
ultimate reality? Is it one things or is it many different things?,
can reality be grasped by the senses or is it transcendent? And
what is the mind, what is its relation to the body?, and what’s
out there?
 Epistemology is the study of knowledge. Among the
questions that epistemology deals with are : what is
knowledge? Is knowledge acquired exclusively through the
senses or by some other means?, how do we know that we
perceive through our senses is correct?, and how do I know
about it?
 Ethics is the study of right and wrong in human action
or the study of action. Some of the questions treated
by the field of ethics are : what is right? Are there any
objective standards of right and wrong?, are moral
values absolute or relative?, and what should I do?
a) Aesthetics is the study of beauty or the study of art.
Among the questions aesthetics deals with are :
what makes a thing beautiful? Are there any
objective standards of beauty? And what can life be
like?
 Logic is the study of the principles of right
reasoning. Logic is the basic tool that philosophy use
to investigate reality. Among the questions raised by
logic are : what makes an argument valid or invalid,
and what is a sound argument?
Cont..
There is a hierarchical relationship between these branches: at the root is
metaphysics: the study of existence and the nature of existence; closely related
is epistemology: the study of knowledge and how we know about reality and
existence; dependent on epistemology is ethics: the study of how man should
act; ethics is dependent on epistemology because it is impossible to make
choices without knowledge; and aesthetics: the study of art and sense of life is
slightly separate, but depends on metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics.
Cont..
Philosophy itself is generally considered a type of social science,
like sociology or psychology. That’s because early philosophy was
primary concerned with describing the best way to live and organize
society. From that spawned many other disciplines: economics,
political science, law, linguistics, literary and art criticism, and
theology-along with sociology, psychology and education.
PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION
 Definition.
Philosophy of education began as early in ancient Greece as an integral facet of the
philosophy of Socrates and other who called them themselves philosophers.

Philosophy of education can refer to either the academic field of applied philosophy
or to one of any educational philosophies that promote a specific type or vision of
education, and/or which examine the definition, goals and meaning of education.
As an academic field philosophy of education is “ the philosophical study
of education and its problems its central subject matter is education, and its
methods are those of philosophy”.

“The philosophy of education may be either the philosophy of the process

of education or the discipline of education. That is, it may be part of the
discipline in the sense of being concerned with the aims, forms, methods,
or results of the process of educating or being educated; or it may be
metadisciplinary in the sense of being concerned with the concepts, aims,
and methods of the discipline”.
Cont..
As such, it is both part of the field of education and a field of applied philosophy,
drawing from fields of metaphysics, epistemology, axiology and the philosophical
approaches (speculative, prescriptive, and/or analytic) to address questions in and
about pedagogy, education policy, and curriculum, as well as the process of learning,
to name a few. For example, it might study what constitutes upbringing and education,
the values and norms revealed through upbringing and educational practices, the limits
and legitimization of education as an academic discipline, and the relation between
educational theory and practice.
Cont..
Thus, philosophy of education is the
philosophical study of education and its
problems. In other words, it is the application of
philosophical methods to the theory and practice
of education.
Several topics investigated in the philosophy of education are the nature of learning,
especially in children; the purpose of education, particularly the question of whether the
chief goal of educators should be imparting knowledge, developing intellectual
independence, or instilling moral or political values; the nature of education – related
concepts, including the concept of education itself, the sources and legitimacy of
educational authority; and the conduct of educational research. To mention, a few major
figures in the history of the philosophy of education include Plato, Jean – Jacques
Rousseau, and John Dewey.
Cont..
In addition, philosophy of education is the
study of such questions as what education is
and what its purpose is, the nature of the
knowing mind and the human subject,
problems of authority, and the relationship
between education and society.
To some extent, philosophy of education has been linked to greater or lesser
degrees to theories of human development where the philosophy of education
recognizes that the enterprise of civil society depends on the education of the
young , and that to educate children as responsible, thoughtful and enterprising
citizens is an intricate, challenging task requiring deep understanding of
ethical principles, moral values, political theory, aesthetics, and economics as
well in understanding who are children, in themselves and in society.
Concisely, the philosophy of education deals with how children should be
educated, what they should be educated in, and what the ultimate purpose
of education should be for society. If a person wants to be a more
effective teacher, practically he or she need to have q sound philosophical
perspectives that helps the teacher to see the interaction among students,
curriculum, administration, and aims and goals of education.
In short, philosophy of education, let think about what
some great people have said on this subject:

 Aristotle, “ it is the mark of an educated mind to be able to entertain a thought

without accepting it”
 De Montaigne from on Teaching Philosophy of Education: “since philosophy is the
art which teaches us how to live, and since children need to learn it as much as we
do at other ages, why do we not instruct them in it?.. but in truth I know nothing
about the philosophy of education except this that the greatest and the most
important difficulty known to human learning seems to lie in that area which treats
how to bring up children and how to educate them.
Cont..
 Jean Jacques Rousseau, Emile from On Philosophy of
Education: “ plants are shaped by cultivation and men by
education….we are born weak, we need strength; we are born
totally unprovided, we need aid; we are born stupid, e need
judgment. Everything we do not have at our birth and which
we need when we are grown is given us by education.
Philosophy of education is the study of such questions as what education is and what its
purpose is, the nature of the knowing mind and the human subject, problems of authority, and
the relationship between education and society.

To conclude, philosophy of education are the nature of learning, especially in children; the
purpose of education, particularly the question of whether the chief goal of education should
be imparting knowledge, developing intellectual independence, or instilling moral or political
values; the nature of education – related concepts, including the concept of education itself;
the sources and legitimacy of educational authority; and the conduct of educational research.
Brief history of philosophy of education
During certain periods of the history of the philosophy of education, there have been
dominant perspectives, to be sure. At one time, the field was defined around canonical
works on education by great philosophers ( Plato of ancient Greece, the eighteenth –
century Swis-born Frenchman, Jean Jacque Rousseau, and others); at other times,
the field was dominated, in the United States at least, by the figure of John Dewey
(1859-1952) and educational progressivism; at other times, the field was characterized by
an austere analytical approach that explicitly rejected much of what had come before in
the field as not even being proper “ philosophy” at all.
Historically, philosophy of education have usually taken the first form, but under the influence of analytical
philosophy, they have sometimes taken the second.

In the first form, philosophy of education was traditionally developed by philosophers for example, Aristotle,
Augustine, and John LOCKE AS PART OF THEIR PHILOSOPHICAL SYSTEMS< IN THE CONTEXTE OF
THEIR ETHICAL theories. However, in the twentieth century philosophy of education tended to be developed
in schools of education in the context of what is called foundations of education, thus linking it with other parts
of the discipline of education. Educational history, psychology and sociology, rather than with other parts of
philosophy. It was also developed by writers such as Paul Goodman and Robert M. Hutchins who were neither
professional philosophers nor members of schools of education.
Cont..
But even during these periods of dominance there were sharp internal disputes within the field (such
as feminist criticisms of the "Great Man" approach to philosophy of education and vigorous
critiques
of the analytical method). Such disputes can be read off the history of the professional societies,
journals, and graduate programs that institutionalize the field, and they can be documented through a

succession of previous encyclopedia articles, which by definition attempt to define and delimit their
subject matter.
Theoretical questions concerning the teaching of philosophy in school
have been debated at least since Immanuel Kant and Georg Wilhelm
Friedrich Hegel. The modern debate in Germany in
the 1970s gave- rise to two competing approaches: the more traditional,
text-oriented approach
by Wulff D. Rehfus and the more modern, dialogue-oriented approach by
Ekkehard Martens.
Newer approaches have been developed by Karel van der Leeuw and
Pieter Mostert 'as well as
Roland W. Henke.
A similar divide between traditionalists and modernists is to be
found in France, with the proponents Jacques Muglioni and
Jacqueline Russ on the one side and France Rollin and
Michel Tozzi on the other. In Italy, philosophy education is
traditionally historically oriented in
the sense of history of ideas. Theoretical problems of philosophy
education at college and
university level arc discussed in articles in the journal teaching
Philosophy.
The scope of philosophy of education

The scope of philosophy of education is confined

to the field ' of education. Thus, it is philosophy
in
the field of education. The scope of philosophy of
education is concerned with the problems of
education. These problems mainly include:
 Interpretation of human nature, the world and the universe and their
relation with man (Bio- ecological system) ,
 Interpretation of aims and ideals of education.
 The relationship of various components of the system of education,
 Relationship of education and various areas of national life [economic
system, political order, social
progress, cultural reconstructions etc. .
 Educational values
 Theory of knowledge and its relationship to education.
The above mentioned problems constitute the
scope of philosophy of education and explain its
nature. Thus, the scope of philosophy of
education includes the following :
 Aims and Ideals of education philosophy.
Philosophy of education critically evaluates the different aims and ideals of education. These aims
and ideals have been prorogated by various philosophers in different times.

They are character building, main making harmonious human development, preparation for adult
life, development of citizenship, utilization of leisure, training for civil live, training for international
living, achieving social and national integration, scientific and technological development, education
for all, equalizing educational opportunities, strengthening democratic political order and human
resource development.
These and other aims of education presented by
educational thinkers in different times and climes are
scrutinized and evaluated. Thus, philosophy of
education critically evaluates different aims and ideals
of education to arrive at.
 Interpretation of Human nature
A philosophical picture of human nature is a result of the
synthesis of the facts borrowed from all the human sciences with
the values discussed in different normative sciences. The
philosophical picture, therefore, is broader as compared to the
picture of man drawn by biology, sociology, psychology,
economics and anthropology and other human science.
 Educational Values.
Value is typically a philosophical subject since it is more abstract, integral and universal.
Philosophy of education not only critically evaluates the values but also systematizes
them in a hierarchy. Educational values are determined by philosophical values.
Educational values propagated by different philosophers have been derived from their
own world, view and their outlook on the purpose of human life.

Therefore, a scrutiny of the world views, outlook and beliefs is the specific function of
philosophy and it is necessary for the philosophy and it is necessary for the philosophical
treatment of the values.
 Theory of Knowledge.
Education is related to knowledge. It is determined by the source,
limits, criteria and means of knowledge. The discussion of all
these falls within the jurisdiction of epistemology, one of the
branches of philosophy, therefore, an important area of the
functioning of philosophy of education is related to theory of
knowledge.
One of the most important contributions of the philosophy of education to the
cause of educations is the provision of criteria for deciding the relationship of
state and education, economics system and education, curriculum, school
organization and management, discipline etc. These problems have led to the
evaluation of different philosophies of education.

The criteria of judgment everywhere are determined by philosophy; therefore, philosophy

of education provides the criteria for critical evaluation and judgment in these fields.
Functions of philosophy of
Education
Philosophy of education performs various functions.
They area discussed below:
 Determining the aims of education
 Harmonizing old and new traditions in the field of education
 Providing the educational planners, administrators and educators with the
progressive vision to achieve educational development
 Preparing the young generation to face the challenges of the modern time
Determining the aims of education
Philosophy of education provides original ideas regarding all
aspects of education particularly educational aims. It is said that
educational philosophy gives different views, but this situation is
not harmful, rather it helps in providing education according to the
need of society. The difference in view of philosophy of education
reflects the multiplicity and diversities of human life. Philosophy
of education guides the process of education by suggesting
suitable aims from the diversities of life and selecting the means
accordingly.
Harmonizing old and new traditions in the field of
education
In the process of social development, the old traditions become
outdated for the people. They are replaced by the new traditions.
But this process of replacement is not always smooth. It is faced
with lots of opposition from certain orthodox sections of the
society. At the same time it must be kept in mind that every 'old' is
not outdated and every 'new' is not perfect Therefore, there is a
need of co- coordinating the two in order to maintain the harmony
between both. This function can be performed by philosophy of
education.
Providing the educational planners, administrators and educators with the progressive
vision to achieve educational development

Spencer has rightly pointed that only a true

philosopher can give a practical shape to education.
Philosophy of education provides the educational
planners, administrators and educators with the
right vision which guides them to attain the
educational goals efficiently.
Preparing the young generation to face the
challenges of the modern time
Social commentators have given many labels to the
present period of history. For some it is the information
age and for others it is post modernity, later modernity,
high modernity or even the age of uncertainty. One more
addition to this list may be that 'present age is an age of
Globalization as a phenomenon arrived on the economic
scene in the 1990 in India.
This watchword has had its implications in the social
political, economic fabric of the country of which
education is a part.
Philosophy of education is a guiding, steering and
liberating force that helps young people to and
society at large to face the challenges of the modern
time.
PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVES IN
EDUCATION
Overview and approaches of philosophy of education .
The word education is used sometimes to signify the
activity, process, or enterprise of educating or being
educated and sometimes to signify the discipline or
field of study taught in schools of
education that concerns itself with this activity,
process, or enterprise.
As an activity or process, education may be formal or
informal, private or public, individual or social, but it
always consists in cultivating dispositions (abilities, skills,
knowledge, beliefs, attitudes, values, and character traits)
by certain methods. As a discipline, education studies or
reflects on the activity or enterprise by asking questions
about its aims, methods, effects, forms, history, costs,
value, and relations to society.
Developing a philosophical perspective on education is
not easy. However, it is very important if a person wants
to become a more effective professional educator. A
sound philosophical perspective helps one sees the
interaction among students, curriculum, and aims and
goals of education of various type of philosophy in
achieving a teacher personal and professional
undertaking.
Philosophy helps teachers to reflect on key issues and concepts in education,
usually through such questions as: What is being educated? What is the good
life? What is knowledge? What is the nature of learning? What is teaching?
Philosophers think about the meaning of things and interpretation of that
meaning. Even simple statements, such as "What should be learned? Or what is
adolescence?" set up raging debates that can have major implications. For
example, what happens if an adolescent commits a serious crime? One
interpretation may hide another. If such a young person is treated as an adult
criminal, what does it say about justice, childhood, and the like? Or if the
adolescent is treated as a child, what does it say about society’s views on crime?
Your educational philosophy is your beliefs about why, what and how you teach, whom
you teach, and about the nature of learning. It is a set of principles that guides
professional action through the events and issues teachers face daily. Sources for your
educational philosophy are your life experiences, your values, the environment in which
you live, interactions with others and awareness of philosophical approaches. Learning
about the branches of philosophy, philosophical world views, and different educational
philosophies and theories will help you to determine and shape your own educational
philosophy, combined with these other aspects.
When you examine a philosophy different from your own, it
helps you to "wrestle" with your own thinking. Sometimes this
means you may change your mind. Other times, it may
strengthen your viewpoint; or, you may be eclectic, selecting
what seems best from different philosophies. But in eclecticism.
there is a danger of sloppy and inconsistent thinking, especially if
you borrow a bit of one philosophy and stir in some of another.
If serious thought has gone into selection of strategies, theories,
or philosophies, this is less problematic.
GENERAL PHILOSOPHIES ON EDUCATION

The term metaphysics literally means "beyond

the physical." This area of philosophy focuses on
the nature of reality. Metaphysics attempts to
find unity across the domains of experience and
thought. At the metaphysical level, there are four
broad philosophical schools of thought that apply
to education today.
They are idealism, realism, pragmatism (sometimes called
experientialism), and existentialism.

Each will be explained shortly. These four general

frameworks provide the root or base from which the
various educational philosophies are derived.
* A metaphysical school of thought, called Scholasticism, is largely
applied in Roman Catholic schools in the educational philosophy called
"Thomism.
" It combines idealist and realist philosophies in a framework that harmonized the
ideas of Aristotle, the realist; with idealist notions of truth. Thomas Aquinas, 1255-
127, was the theologian who 'wrote "Summa Theological," formalizing church
doctrine.
The Scholasticism movement encouraged the logical and
philosophical study of the belief;
of the church, legitimizing scientific inquiry within a religious
framework. Two of these general or world philosophies,
idealism and realism, are derived from the ancient
Greek philosophers, Plato and Aristotle.
Two are more contemporary, pragmatism and existentialism.
However, educators who share one of these distinct sets of
beliefs about the nature of reality presently apply each of
these world philosophies in successful classrooms. Let us
explore each of these metaphysical schools of thought.
Idealism
Idealism is a philosophical approach that has as its central tenet
(opinion, principle, doctrine, dogma) that ideas are the only true
reality, the only thing worth knowing. In a search for truth,
beauty, and justice that is enduring and everlasting; the focus is
on conscious reasoning in the mind. Idealism is the
philosophical theory that maintains that the ultimate nature of
reality is based on mind or ideas. It holds that the so-called
external or real world is inseparable from mind, consciousness,
or perception.
Idealism is any philosophy which argues that the only
things knowable are consciousness or the contents of
consciousness; not anything in the outside world, if such
a place actually exists. Indeed, idealism often takes the
form of arguing that the only real things are mental
entities, not physical things and argues that reality is
somehow dependent upon the mind rather than
independent of it.
Some narrow versions of idealism argue that our
understanding of reality reflects the workings of
our mind, first and foremost, that the properties of
objects have no standing independent of minds
perceiving them.
Plato (-124/423 - 348
Plato is the father of idealism. He espoused this view about 400
years BC, in his famous book, The Republic. Plato believed that
there are two worlds. The first is the spiritual or mental world,
which is eternal, permanent, orderly, regular, and universal. There
is also the world of appearance, the world experienced through
sight, touch, smell, taste, and sound that is changing imperfect,
and disorderly.
This division is often referred to as the duality of mind and body.
Reacting against what he perceived as too much of a
focus on the immediacy of the physical and sensory
world, Plato described a utopian society in which
"education to body and soul all the beauty and
perfection of which they arc capable" as an ideal.
In his allegory of the cave, the shadows of the sensory world
must be overcome with the light of reason or universal truth.
To understand truth, one must pursue knowledge and identify
with the Absolute Mind. Plato also believed that the soul is
fully formed prior to birth and is perfect and at one with the
Universal Being.
The birth process checks this perfection, so education requires
bringing latent ideas (fully formed concepts) to consciousness.
In idealism, the aims of education is to discover and develop each individual's
abilities and full moral excellence in order to better serve society. The curricular
emphasis is subject matter of mind: literature, history, philosophy, and religion.

Teaching methods focus on handling ideas through lecture, discussion, and

Socratic dialogue (a method of teaching that uses questioning to help students
discover and clarify knowledge). Introspection, intuition, insight, and whole-
part logic are used to bring to consciousness the forms or concepts which are
latent in the mind. Character is developed through imitating examples and
heroes.
In the Western culture, idealism is perhaps the oldest systematic
philosophy, dating back at least to Plato in ancient Greece. From
that time until now, idealism has been a dominant philosophical
influence to our society, for example in the American
philosophical thought, it was inspired so much by the German
idealism. Even though idealism is not as strong as it was before,
it is still alive in certain areas such as contemporary religious
studies and certain aspects of moral philosophy.
In short, the main tenant of idealism is that ideas and
knowledge are the truest reality. Many things in the
world change, but ideas and knowledge are enduring,
Idealism was often referred to as idea-ism. Idealists
believe that ideas can change lives. The most
important part of a person is the mind. It is to be
nourished and developed.
Plato's theory of ideas is an abstraction, divorced from the so-
called external world, of modern
European philosophy; despite the fact Plato taught that ideas are
ultimately real and different from non-ideal things. Modern
idealism - all objects are identical with some idea and the ideal
knowledge is itself the system of ideas. The identification of
modern idealism was encouraged by the writings and thoughts of
Rene Descartes, Immanuel Kant, and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich
Hegel.
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)
Immanuel Kant believed that education differs from
training 111 that the latter involves thinking
whereas the former does not. In addition to educating
reason, of central importance to him was the
development of character and teaching of moral
maxims/sayings. Kant was a proponent of public
education and of learning by doing .
Realism
The world of ideas and matter defined in idealism by
Plato and Socrates do no! exist separately and apart
from each other for realists. Realists contend that
material things can exist whether or not there is a
human being around to appreciate or perceive them.
Realists believe that reality exists independent of the
human mind. The ultimate reality is tile world of
physical objects. The focus is on the body/objects.
Truth is objective-what can be observed.
Aristotle, a student of Plato who broke with his mentor's idealist
philosophy, is called the father of both Realism and the scientific
method. In this metaphysical view, the aim is to understand
objective reality through "the diligent and unsparing scrutiny of all
observable data." Aristotle believed that to understand an object,
its ultimate form had to be understood, which does not change.
For example, a rose exists whether or not a person is aware of it.
A rose can exist in the mind without being physically
present. but ultimately, the rose shares properties with all
other roses and flowers (its form), although one rose may
be red and another peach colored.
Aristotle also was the first to teach logic as a formal
discipline in order to be able to reason about physical
events and aspects. The exercise of rational thought is
viewed as the ultimate purpose for humankind.
Realists believe that the study of ideas can be enhanced by the study of
material things. They believe that knowledge is power, and acquiring
knowledge allows individuals to deal with problems and to face life
effectively.
If the mind is a blank slate. then knowledge comes from sources other
than the mind, those things gamed from sensation and reflection.
Moreover, realists hold that the essence of things is objectively given in
nature, and that our classifications are not arbitrary. As such, realism is
contrasted with nominalism, the theory that universals are merely names
or general terms.
To understand this complex philosophy, one must
examine its development beginning from the classical
times up to the nineteenth century. Philosophers like
Aristotle, Avicenna, Thomas Aquinas, Francis Bacon,
John Locke, Jean Jacques Rousseau, Alfred North
Whitehead, and Betrand Russell have contributed
much to realism ideology.
Aristotle (384BC-322BC)
Only fragments of Aristotle's treatise 011 Education are still
in existence. We thus know of his philosophy of education
primarily through brief passages in other works.
One of education's primary missions for Aristotle, perhaps
the most important, was to produce good and virtuous
citizens for the polis. All who have meditated on the art of
governing mankind have been convinced that the/are
a/empires depends on the education a/youth.
Aristotle considered human nature, habit and reason to be
equally important forces to be cultivated in education.
Thus, for example, he considered repetition to be a key tool
to develop good habits. The teacher was to lead the student
systematically; this differs, for example, from Socrates'
emphasis on questioning his listeners to bring out their own
ideas (though the comparison is perhaps incongruous since
Socrates was dealing with adults).
As a result, Aristotle used syllogism, which is a process of
"ordering statements about: reality in a logical, systematic
form (Ozmon & Craver, 2008). This systematic form would
include a major premise, a minor premise, and a
conclusion. The problem with this thinking is that if one
premise is false, the conclusion cannot be accurate. For
example, a famous but a simplistic version of a syllogism
goes as follows:
All men are mortal.
Socrates is a man; Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
John Locke (1632 - 1704)
John Locke was an English philosopher. Locke is
considered the first of the British empiricists. His
ideas had enormous influence on the development of
epistemology and political philosophy, and he is
widely regarded as one of the most influential
Enlightenment thinkers, classical republicans, and
contributors to liberal theory.
Locke's Some Thoughts Concerning Education is an
outline on how to educate this mind: he expresses the
belief that education makes the man, or, more
fundamentally, that the mind is an "empty cabinet",
with the statement. "I think I may say that of all the
men we meet with, nine parts of ten are what they
are, good or evil, useful or not, by their education."
Locke also wrote that "the little and almost insensible
impressions on our tender infancies have very
important and lasting consequences." He argued that
the "associations of ideas" that one makes when
young are more important than those made later
because they are the foundation of the self: they are,
put differently, what first mark the tabula rasa.
Locke outlined a new theory of mind, contending that the child's mind was
a "tabula Rasa "on
"blank slate" 01' "empty m:'ind"; that is, it did not contain any innate or
inborn ideas. For example, he advises parents to watch their children
carefully in order to discover their, aptitudes, and to nurture their children's
own interests rather than force them to participate in activities which they
dislike.
John Locke believed that the mind was a blank slate at birth; information
and knowledge were added through experience, perception, and reflection.
Another Locke most important contribution to eighteenth-
century educational theory also stems from his theory of
the self. He writes: "the little and almost insensible
impressions on our tender infancies have very important
and lasting consequences. That is, the "associations of
ideas made when young are more significant than those
made when mature because they are the foundation of the
self - they mark the tabula rasa.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)
Rousseau, though he paid his respects to Plato's philosophy, rejected it as
impractical due to the decayed state of society.
Rousseau also had a different theory of human development; where Plato
held that people are born with skills appropriate to different castes/kinds
(though he did not regard these skills as being inherited), Rousseau held
that there was one developmental process common to all humans. This was
an intrinsic, natural process, of which the primary behavioral manifestation
was curiosity. This differed from Locke's 'tabula rasa' in that it was an
active process deriving from the child's nature, which drove the child to
learn and adapt to its surroundings.
Rousseau wrote in his book Emile that all children are
perfectly designed organisms, ready to learn from their
surroundings so as to grow into virtuous adults, but due to
the malign influence of corrupt society, they often fail to do
so. Rousseau advocated an educational method which
consisted of removing the child from society-for example,
to a country home-and alternately conditioning him through
changes to his environment and setting traps and puzzles
for him to solve or overcome.
He once said that a child should grow up without
adult interference and that the child must be guided to
suffer from the experience of the natural
consequences of his own acts or behavior. When he
experiences the consequences of his own acts, he
advises himself.
Pragmatism (Experientialism)
Pragmatism is basically an American philosophy, but has
its roots in European thinking. The root of the word
pragmatism is a Greek word meaning "work".
According to pragmatism, the truth or meaning of an idea
or a proposition lies in its observable practical
consequences rather than anything metaphysical. It can be
summarized by the phrase "whatever works is likely true".
Because reality changes, whatever work will also
change - thus, truth must also be changeable and no
one can claim to possess any final or ultimate truth.
In other word, pragmatism is the philosophy that
encourages us to seek out the processes and do things
that work best to help us achieve desirable ends
(Ozmon and Craver, 2008).
Locke believed that as people have more experiences,
they have more ideas imprinted/stamped on the mind
and more with which to relate. However, he argued
that one could have false ideas as well as true ones.
The only way people can be sure of their ideas are
correct is by verifying them in the world of
experience, such as physical proof.
The means to solving a problem is as important as the end.
The scientific method is important in the thinking process
for pragmatists, but it was not to seem like sterile lab
thinking.
Pragmatists want to apply the scientific method for the
greater good of the world. They believe that although
science has caused many problems in our world, it can still
be used to benefit mankind.
However, the progressive pragmatic movement
believed in separating children by intelligence and
ability in order to meet the needs of society. The
softer side of that philosophy believed in giving
children a great deal of freedom to explore. leading
many people to label the philosophy of pragmatism in
education as permissive.
It is an action based philosophy which would include using
multiple methods of educating students, some of which involve
going into the community or involving community members.
Teachers need to be concerned with teaching children how to
solve real life problems in a practical setting. This philosophy
advocates meeting the needs and interests of individual children
through a directed approach.
Experimentation is basic, leading to problems which children
must learn to solve.
Pragmatists believe that people learn through
informal processes. but these processes must have a
purpose and a flexible plan o:' action. The teacher's
job is to provide an open-ended opportunity for study
in an environment that allows the child to think and
act intelligently in order to test ideas and skills.
All children do not learn in the same way or at the same
rate, so teachers are the guides of the learning process
which meets children at their level of ability. In that
respect, teachers must have sufficient knowledge of the
subject to be able to break it down into parts for students
to study, and they must be able to link the learning to a
motivation and natural curiosity that the children already
possess.
It is also important for teachers to also understand the
background and environment that learners are
bringing to school so that they can make suggestions
and arouse student interests in order to help them
grow by leading them into new areas of knowledge.
 John Dewey (1859-1952)
In Democracy and Education: An Introduction to the
Philosophy of Education, Dewey stated that education,
in its broadest sense, is the means of the "social
continuity of life" given the "primary ineluctable/
unpreventable facts of the birth and death of each one
of the constituent members in a social group".
Education is therefore a necessity, for "the life of the group
goes on." Dewey was a proponent of Educational
Progressivism and was a relentless campaigner for reform
of education, pointing out that the authoritarian, strict, pre-
ordained knowledge approach of modern traditional
education was too concerned with delivering knowledge,
and not enough with understanding students' actual
experiences.
John Dewey applied pragmatist philosophy in his
progressive approaches. He believed that learners
must adapt to each other and to their environment.
Schools should emphasize the subject matter of social
experience. All learning is dependent on the context
of place, time, and circumstance.
In summary for Pragmatists, only those things that are
experienced or observed are real. In this late 19th century
American philosophy, the focus is on the reality of
experience. Unlike the Realists and Rationalists.
Pragmatists believe that reality is constantly changing and
that we learn best through applying our experiences and
thoughts to problems, as they arise. The universe is
dynamic and evolving, a "becoming" view of the world.
Existentialism
The nature of reality for Existentialists is subjective, and lies within the
individual. The physical world has no inherent meaning outside of human
existence.
Existence comes before any definition of what we are. We define ourselves
in relationship to that existence by the choices we
make. We should not accept anyone else's predetermined philosophical
system; rather, we must take responsibility for deciding who we are. The
focus is on freedom, the development of authentic individuals, as we make
meaning of our lives.
External factors are central to Individual Standards.
Soren Kierkegaard (1813-1855),
Soren Kierkegaard, a Danish minister and philosopher,
is considered to be the founder of existentialism. His
was a Christian orientation. Another group of
existentialists, largely European, believes that we must
recognize the finiteness of our lives. Our existence is
not guaranteed in an after life, so there is tension about
life and the certainty of death, of hope or despair.
American existentialists have focused more on human
potential and the quest for personal meaning. Values
clarification is an outgrowth of this movement. Following the
bleak period of World War II the French philosophe " Jean
Paul Sartre, suggested that for youth, the existential moment
arises when young persons realize for the first time that
choice is theirs, that they are responsible for .themselves.
Their question becomes "Who am I and what should I do?
Related to education, the subject matter of existentialist
classrooms should be a matter of personal choice.
Teachers view the individual as an entity within a social
context in which the learner must confront others' views to
clarify his or her own. Character development emphasizes
individual responsibility for decisions. Real answers come
from within the individual, not from outside authority.
Existentialists are opposed to thinking about students as
objects to be measured, tracked, or standardized. Such
educators want the educational experience to focus on
creating opportunities for self-direction and self-
actualization. They start with the student, rather than on
curriculum content. Within the epistemological frame that
focuses on the nature of knowledge and how we come to
know
EDUCATIONAL PHILOSOPHICAL
APPROACHES

Educational philosophical approaches are currently used in

classrooms over the world. They are Perennialism, Essentialism,
Progressivism, and Reconstructionism.

These educational philosophies focus heavily on what we should

teach, the curriculum aspect.
Perennialism
For Perennialists, the aim of education is to ensure that
students acquire understandings about the great ideas of
western civilization. These ideas have the potential for
solving problems in any era.
The focus is to teach ideas that are everlasting- to seek
enduring truths which are constant not changing, as the
natural and human worlds at their most essential level, do
not change.
Humans arc rational beings, and their minds need to
be developed- Thus, cultivation of the intellect is the
highest priority in a worthwhile education.
Perennialists believe that one should teach the things
that one deems to be of everlasting importance to all
people everywhere. They believe that the most
important topics develop a person.
Therefore, one should teach principles, not facts. Since
people are human, one should teach first about humans,
not machines or techniques. Since people are people
first, and workers second if at all, one should teach
liberal topics first, not vocational topics. The focus is
primarily on teaching reasoning and wisdom rather than
facts, the liberal arts rather than vocational training
Essentialism
Educational essentialism is an educational philosophy
whose adherents believe that children should learn
the traditional basic subjects and that these should be
learned thoroughly and rigorously. An essentialist
program normally teaches children progressively,
from less complex skills to more complex.
William Chandler Bagley (1874-1946)
William Chandler Bagley taught in elementary
schools before becoming a professor of education at
the University of Illinois. where he served as the
Director of the School of Education from 1908 until
1917. He was a professor of education at Teachers
College, Columbia, from 1917 to 1940.
An opponent of pragmatism and progressive
education, Bagley insisted on the value of knowledge
for its own sake, not merely as an instrument. and he
criticized his colleagues for their failure to emphasize
systematic study of academic subjects. Bagley was a
proponent of educational essentialism.
Essentialists believe that there is a common core of knowledge that
needs to be transmitted to students in a systematic, disciplined way.
Schooling should be practical. preparing students to become
valuable members of society. It should focus on facts-the objective
reality out there--and "the basics," training students to read, write,
speak, and compute clearly and logically. Schools should not try to
set or influence policies.
Students should be taught hard work, respect for authority, and
discipline.
Progressivism
The Progressive education philosophy was
established in America from the mid 1920s through
the mid 1950s. John Dewey was its foremost
proponent .
Progressivists believe that education should focus on
the whole child, rather than on the content or the
teacher.
This educational philosophy stresses that students should
test ideas by active experimentation. Learning is rooted in
the questions of learners that arise through experiencing the
world. It is active, not passive. The learner is a problem
solver and thinker who make meaning through his or her
individual experience in the physical and cultural context.
Effective teachers provide experiences so that students can
learn by doing.
Curriculum content is derived from student interests
and questions. The scientific method is used by
progressivist educators so that students can study
matter and events systematically and first 'hand. The
emphasis is on process- how one comes to know.
Many philosophers such as Jean Piaget and Jerome Bruner
are the first promoters of Progressivism theory. Educational
progressivism is the belief that education must be based on
the principle that humans are social animals who learn best
in real-life activities with other people.
Progressivists, like proponents of most educational theories,
claim to rely on the best available scientific theories of
learning.
Most progressive educators believe that children learn as if they were
scientists, following a process similar to John Dewey's model of
learning:
1) Become aware of the problem.
2) Define the problem.
3) Propose hypotheses to solve it.
4) Evaluate the consequences of the hypotheses from one's past
experience.
5) Test the likeliest solution.
Reconstructionism /Critical Theory
Social reconstructionism is a philosophy that
emphasizes the addressing of social questions and a
quest to create a better society and worldwide
democracy. Reconstructionist educators focus on a
curriculum that highlights social reform as the aim of
education.
Theodore Brameld (1904-1987) was the founder of social
reconstructionism, in reaction against the realities of World
War II. He recognized the potential for either human
annihilation through technology and human cruelty or the
capacity to create a beneficent society using technology
and human compassion. George Counts (1889-'1974)
recognized that education was the means of preparing
people for creating this new social order.
Critical theorists believe that systems must be
changed to overcome oppression and improve human
conditions.
Paulo Freire (1921-1997)
A Brazilian Paulo Freire committed to the cause of
educating the impoverished peasants of his nation
and collaborating with them in the pursuit of their
liberation from what he regarded as "oppression.
Freire also suggests that a deep reciprocity be inserted into our
notions of teacher and student; he comes close to suggesting that
the teacher-student dichotomy be completely abolished, instead
promoting the roles of the participants ill the classroom as the
teacher-student (a teacher who learns) and the student-teacher (a
teamer who teaches). In its early, strong form this kind of
classroom lies sometimes been criticized on lite grounds that it
call mask rather than overcome the teacher's authority.
Paulo Freire (1921-1997) experienced that living in poverty led
him to champion education and literacy as the vehicle for social
change. In his view, humans must learn to resist oppression and
not become its victims, nor oppress others. To do so requires
dialog and critical consciousness, the development of awareness to
overcome domination and oppression. Rather than "teaching as
banking," in which the educator deposits information into students'
heads, Paulo Freire saw teaching and learning as a process of
inquiry in which the child must invent and reinvent the world.
Psychological theories on learning and
philosophy of education
Introduction
Related to both the metaphysical worldview
philosophies and the educational philosophies are
theories of learning that focus on how learning occurs,
the psychological orientations. They provide structures
for the instructional aspects of teaching, suggesting
methods that are related to their perspective on learning.
These theoretical beliefs about learning are also at the epistemic
level of philosophy, as they are concerned with the nature of
learning. Each psychological orientation is most directly related
to a particular educational philosophy, but may have other
influences as well. The first two theoretical approaches can be
thought of as transmissive, in that information is given to
learners. The second two approaches are constructivist, in that
the learner has to make meaning from experiences in the world.
 Information Processing:
Information processing theorists focus on the mind and how it works to
explain how learning occurs.The focus is on the processing of a
relatively fixed body of knowledge and how it is attended to, received in
the mind, processed, stored, and retrieved from memory. This model is
derived from analogies between how the brain works and computer
processing. Information processing theorists focus on the individual
rather than the social aspects of thinking and learning. The mind is a
symbolic processor that stores information in schemas or hierarchically
arranged structures.
Knowledge may be general, applicable to many situations; for example, knowing
how to type or
spell. Other knowledge is domain specific, applicable to a specific subject or task,
such as vowel sounds in Spanish. Knowledge is also declarative (content, or
knowing that; for example, schools; have students, teachers. and administrators).
procedural (knowing how to do things-the steps OJ- strategies; for example, to
multiply mixed number, change both sides to improper fractions, then multiply
numerators and denominators), or conditional (knowing when and why to apply the
other two types of knowledge; for example, when taking a standardized multiple
choice test, keep track of time, be strategic, and don't get bogged down on hard
problems).
The intake and representation of information is called encoding. It
is sent to the short term or working memory, acted upon, and those
pieces determined as important are sent to long term memory
storage, where they must be retrieved and sent back to the working
or short-term memory for use. Short term memory has very limited
capacity, so it must be kept active to be retained. Long term
memory is organized in structures, called schernas, scripts, or
propositional or hierarchical networks. Something learned can be
retrieved by relating it to other aspects, procedures, or episodes.
 Behaviorism:
Behaviorist theorists believe that behavior is shaped
deliberately by forces in the environment and that the type of
person and actions desired can be the product of design. In
other words, behavior is determined by others, rather than by
our own free will. By carefully shaping desirable behavior,
morality and information is learned. Learners will acquire
and remember responses that lead to satisfying aftereffects.
Repetition of a meaningful connection results in learning. If the student is ready for
the connection, learning is enhanced. Behaviorism is linked with empiricism, which
stresses scientific information and observation, rather than subjective or metaphysical
realities. Behaviorists search for laws that govern human behavior, like scientists who
look for pattern sin empirical events. Change in behavior must be observable:
internal thought processes are not considered. Influential behaviorists include J.
Pavlov, B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) and James B. Watson (1878-1958).
Ivan Pavlov

Ivan Pavlov's research on using the reinforcement of a bell sound when

food is presented to a dog and finding the sound alone would make, dog
salivate after several presentations of the conditioned ,stimulus, was the
beginning of behaviorist approaches. Learning occurs as a result of
responses to stimuli in the environment that are reinforced by adults and
others, as well as from feedback from actions on objects.
The teacher can help students learn by conditioning them through identifying
the desired behaviors in measurable, observable terms, recording these
behaviors and their frequencies, identifying appropriate reinforces for each
desired behavior, and providing the reinforce as soon as the student displays
the behavior. For example, if children are supposed to raise hands to get
called on, we might reinforce a child who raises his hand by using praise,
"Thank you for raising your hand.".
 Cognitivism/Constructivism
Cognitivists or Constructivists believe that the learner
actively constructs his or her own understandings of reality
through interaction with objects, events, and people in the
environment, and reflecting on these interactions. Early
perceptual psychologists (Gestalt psychology) focused on
the making of wholes from bits and pieces of objects and
events in the world, believing that meaning was the
construction in the brain of patterns from these pieces.
For learning to occur, an event, object, or experience must
conflict with what the learner already knows. Therefore,
the learner's previous experiences determine what can be
learned. Motivation to learn is experiencing conflict with
what one knows. which causes an imbalance, which
triggers a quest to restore the equilibrium. Piaget described
intelligent behavior as adaptation. The learner organizes his
or her understanding in organized structures.
At the simplest level, these are called schemes. When
something new is presented, the learner must modify
these structures in order to deal with the new
information. This process, called equilibration, is the
balancing between what is assimilated (the new) and
accommodation, the change in structure. The child goes
through four distinct stages or levels in his or her
understandings of the world.
 Humanism
The roots of humanism are found in the thinking of Erasmus
(1466-1536), who attacked the religious teaching and thought
prevalent in his time to focus on free inquiry and rediscovery of
the classical roots from Greece and Rome. Erasmus believed in
the essential goodness of children, that humans have free win,
moral conscience, the ability to reason, aesthetic sensibility, and
religious instinct.
He advocated that the young should be treated kindly and that learning
should not be forced or rushed, as it proceeds in stages. Humanism was
developed as an educational philosophy by Rousseau (1712-1778) and
Pestalozzi, who emphasized nature and the basic goodness, of humans,
understanding through the senses, and education as a gradual and unhurried
process in which the development of human character follows the unfolding
of nature.

Humanists believe that the learner should be in control of his or her own
destiny.
The learner should become a fully autonomous
person, personal freedom, choice, and
responsibility are the focus. The learner is self-
motivated to achieve towards the highest level
possible. Motivation to learn is intrinsic in
humanism.
 Unschooling
Unschooling is a range of educational philosophies
and practices centered on allowing children to learn
through their. natural life experiences, including child
directed play, game play. household responsibilities,
work experience. and social interaction, rather than
through a more traditional school curriculum.
Unschooling encourages exploration of activities led by
the children themselves, facilitated by the adults.
Unschooling differs from conventional schooling
principally in the thesis that standard curricula and
conventional grading methods, as well as other features
of traditional schooling, are counterproductive to the
goal of maximizing the education of each child.
John Holt
In 1964 Holt published his first book, How Children Fail, asserting that the
academic failure of
schoolchildren was not despite the efforts of the schools, but actually
because of the schools. Not surprisingly, How Children Fail ignited a
firestorm of controversy. Holt was catapulted into the American national
consciousness to the extent that he made appearances on major TV talk
shows, wrote book reviews for LUe magazine, and was a guest on the To
Tel! The Truth TV game show. In his follow-up work, How Children Learn,
published in 1967, Holt tried to elucidate the learning process of children
and why he believed school short circuits that process.
 Democratic Education
Democratic education is a theory of learning and school governance in
which students and staff participate freely and equally in a school
democracy. In a democratic school, there is typically shared decision-
making among students and staff on matters concerning living. working
and learning together.
S. Neill (l883-1973)
Neill founded Summerhill School, the oldest existing democratic school in
Suffolk, England in 1921 he wrote a number of books that now define much of
contemporary democratic education philosophy.

Neill believed that the happiness of the child should be the paramount
consideration in decisions about the child's' upbringing, and that this happiness
grew from a sense of personal freedom. He felt that deprivation of this sense
of freedom during childhood, and the consequent unhappiness experienced by
the repressed child, was responsible for many of the psychological
disorders of adulthood.
 Classical Education
The Classical education movement advocates a form of
education based in the traditions of Western culture, with a
particular focus on education as understood and taught in
the Middle Ages. The term "classical education" has been
used in English for several centuries, with each era
modifying the definition and adding its own selection of
topics.
By the end of the 18th century, in addition to the trivium and
quadrivium of the Middle Ages, the definition of a classical
education embraced study of literature, poetry, drama, philosophy,
history, art, and languages. In the 20th and 21st centuries it is used
to refer to a broad-based study of the liberal arts and sciences, as
opposed to a practical or pre- professional program. Classical
Education can be described as rigorous and systematic, separating
children and their learning into three rigid categories, Grammar,
Dialectic, and Rhetoric.
 Contemplative education
Contemplative education focuses on bringing spiritual awareness
into the pedagogical process.
Contemplative approaches may be used in the classroom, especially
in tertiary or (often in modified form) in secondary education.
Parker Palmer is a recent pioneer in contemplative methods. The
Center for Contemplative Mind in Society founded a branch
focusing on education, The Association for Contemplative Mind in
Higher Education.
Contemplative methods may also be used by
teachers in their preparation:
Conclusion
The educational principles developed by Rousseau and
Dewey, and numerous educational theorists and
philosophers are alive and well in the twenty-first century.
These philosophical principles in education from Socrates
and Plato have been the motor of particular contemporary
interest is the evolution that has occurred of the progressive
idea that each student is an active learner who is pursuing
his or her own individual educational path.
Cont..
By incorporating elements of the classical empiricist epistemology of
John Locke, this progressive principle has become transformed into
the extremely popular position known as constructivism with Jean
Piaget, according to which each student in a classroom constructs his
or her own individual body of understandings even when all in the
group are given what appears to be the same stimulus or educational
experience. A consequence of this is that a classroom of thirty
students will have thirty individually-constructed, and possibly
different, bodies of "knowledge", in addition to that of the teacher!
To be a poster child for progressivism, however, is
not to be the parent. Rather than to Dewey, that honor
must go to Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and to his
educational novel written in soaring prose, Emile
(1762). Starting with the premise that "God makes all
things good; man meddles with them and they
become evil" (Rousseau, 1955, 5),
Cont..
Out in the countryside, rather than having a set curriculum that he is forced to
follow, Emile learns when some natural stimulus or innate interest motivates him-
and under these conditions learning comes easily.

He is allowed to suffer the natural consequences of his actions (if he breaks a

window, he gets cold: if he takes the gardener's property, the gardener will no longer
do him favors), and experiences such as these lead to the development of his moral
system. Although Rousseau never intended these educational details 10 be taken
literally as a blueprint, over the ages there have been attempts to implement them.
one being the famous British "Free school". Furthermore, over Ole ages these
princip1es also have proven to be fertile soil for philosophers of education to till.
Books:

 Aggarwal P.E. Theory and principles of Education Philosophical and Sociological Bases of
Education. 2nd Ed. Vikash, New Delhi.
 Akinpelu J.A. An Introduction to Philosophy of Education. Macmillan Publishers, London.
 Brown H. Perception. Theory and Commitment: The New Philosophy of Science. The
University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
 Mwanahewa, S.A. Philosophy of Education. Department of Distance Education, Makerere
University.
 Ssekamwa J.C. History and Development of Education. Kampala, Fountain Publishers.
 Lugumba S.M.E. and Ssekamwa J.C. History of Education in East Africa.
 Odaet C.F and Bbuye J. Comparative Education. Kampala. Makerere University
 King E.J. Other Schools and ours: A comparative Study for today. New York. Winston Publishers.
 Hans N. Comparative Education. 3rd Edition
 Altback P.G. Comparative Education. New York. Macmillan