MM 512: Alloy Development and

Heat Treatment.
[MME, MTech.Sem-II and BTech. Sem-VIII]
[Elective: 3L-0T-0P = 6C]

Dr. OP Sinha
Adjunct Faculty.
Mob.9452825977, 9621509584
Email: opsinha.met@gmail.com
 Syllabus[MM512][3-0-0=6C]
• Selection of engineering alloys including ( carbon, alloy, stainless, dual, Trip/Twip), cast irons, Ni- &
Co- based super alloys; Titanium, Aluminum, Magnesium, Zr alloys.
• In depth understanding of the microstructure and their development for the most common classes of
engineering alloys,
• Over view of microstructures, processing and properties in engineering alloys.
• State of art approaches to the design and development of new alloys for the 21 st century.
• Principles of Heat Treatment, heat treatment of steels and Al-alloys;
• Use of heat treatment to produce required metallurgical properties;
• Cooling curves and equilibrium diagrams; Heat treatment of steels, Harden ability, Strength &
Toughness Case hardening, Carburizing and Nitriding, De-carburizing, Re-heat treatment, Annealing
and Normalizing;
• Heat treatment of Al-alloys, Annealing, Solution treatment, Natural ageing, Artificial ageing, Over
ageing, Explanation of heat treatment of Al alloys, control testing.
• Introduction, Theory of heat treatment, Heat Treatment Environment, Different Heat Treatment
Techniques, Fundamentals and Properties; Annealing, Tempering, Hardening; Thermo mechanical
treatment;
• Fundamental of surface hardening treatment, Carburizing, Carbonitriding, Nitriding.
• Modern surface hardening techniques; Economy of Heat Treatment Processes.
Text Books:
1.Prrinciples of heat treatment of steels, by RC Sharma, New Age International(P) Ltd,2003.
2.Heat Treatment of metals; by WS OWEN. Institute for Metallurgists,1963.
3. Engineering Physical Metallurgy ans Heat Treatment; by Y. Lakhtein, Mir Publisher1979.
4.Material selection in Mechanical design, MF ASHBY. 3 RD ED, Buttworth-Heinemann Ltd,2005
 Selection of Engineering Alloys, including
Steels (Carbon, alloy, Stainless steels, dual
phase, TRIP / TWIP), CAST IRONS, Al, Mg, Ti, Ni
and Co based super alloys and Zirconium
alloys.
 Alloys – Definition, Composition, Properties and Uses

• A substance created from the mixing of two or more metals is

referred to as an alloy. Combinations of metals and other
elements can also be used to create alloys.
• The properties of alloys are frequently dissimilar to the qualities
of their constituent components.
• When compared to pure metals, alloys frequently have greater
strength and hardness.
• Ex. Red gold, which is made by combining copper and gold, is an
example of an alloy. White gold, which is made by combining
silver and gold, is another major gold alloy.
• The several properties of metals like malleability, ductility,
strength, etc., can be improved by mixing other metals with
them.
• The mixture of various metals is called an alloy.
What are Alloys?
• An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals or an alloy is a mixture of metal and small
amounts of non-metals.
• Pure metals are never used in industries for manufacturing purposes. A combination of
metals is used to enhance the properties of a single metal and this combination of
metals is known as an alloy.
• It may also contain metal and non-metal. In general, an alloy of metals is made by
melting the various metals in the proper proportions and then cooling the mixture to
room temperature.
• An alloy of a metal and a non-metal can be prepared by first melting the metal and then
dissolving the non-metal in it, which is followed by cooling it to room temperature.
• In comparison to metals, alloys have more strength and last longer.
For example-
• Aluminium metal is light but not strong, but an alloy of aluminium with copper,
magnesium and manganese is light as well as strong.
• Aluminium metal is light but not hard, but an alloy of aluminium with magnesium is light
as well as hard.
• Iron is the most widely used metal. But it is never used in the pure form because pure
iron is very soft and stretches very easily when hot. When a small amount of
carbon(<2% ) is mixed with iron, an alloy called steel is obtained. Also when the iron is
mixed with chromium and nickel, we get an alloy called stainless steel, which is strong,
tough and does not rust at all.
Various Compositions of Alloys:
Some of the common alloys are Steels, Stainless steels, Cast iron, Super alloys( Ni-,
Co-, Fe- based), Ti & its alloys, Al & its alloys etc. The compositions of various alloys are
given below:
• Steel is made by mixing 90 % iron and 1% carbon. It is more corrosion-resistant and
long-lasting.
• Stainless steel is made by mixing iron with chromium and nickel. It contains
approximately 18 % chromium and 8 % nickel (304/304L).
• Cast iron is formed by mixing iron with carbon. It contains 96-98% of iron and 2-4% of
carbon. Silicon traces may also be discovered.
• Super alloys of Ni-, Co- & Fe- based, are used for high temperature, Ti-alloys, & Al-
alloys used in light weight application as aero space materials.

• Nickel, chromium, and iron are used to make nichrome. It has a high resistance, melting
point, ductility, and other properties. It has a high resistance to electron flow and is
difficult to oxidize.
• Gold with a purity of 24 carats is regarded as the purest. Pure gold is very soft due to
which it is not suitable for making jewellery. To make gold harder, it is mixed with a small
amount of silver or copper. In India gold ornaments are made of 22 carats of gold, which
means that 22 parts of pure gold is alloyed with 2 parts of either silver or copper.
• Tin and lead alloys are used to make solder. It is made up of 50 % lead and 50 % tin.
Properties of Alloys
Each alloy has certain useful properties. An alloy’s properties are distinct from those of the
individual metals from which it is produced. Some properties of alloys are given below:
• Alloys are harder than their constituent metals.
• Alloys are more resistant to corrosion than pure metals.
• Alloys are more durable than the metals they are made from.
• The electrical conductivity of alloys is lower than that of pure metals.
• Alloys have a lower melting point than the metals from which they are made.
• Alloys have greater ductility than their constituent metals.
Uses of Alloys
Alloys are used in a number of ways in our daily lives. Some of the most common uses
of alloys are given below:
• Stainless steel is used for the construction of railways, bridges, roads, airports etc. It is
also used for making cooking utensils and other products.
• Aluminium is a lightweight metal and its alloys are used in the aerospace industry. These alloys
are used for making bodies of aircrafts and to form high strength parts for jet engines. These
parts deal with the extremities of temperature, pressure and vibration. They provide high
strength and the ability to function at very high temperatures.
• Titanium alloys are widely used in the aerospace industry because of their high-
temperature strength , super plastic behaviour and around half weight of iron alloys.
• Super alloys are widely used in the aerospace industry because of their high-
temperature strength.
 The Iron Pillar at Delhi

The Iron Pillar near Qutub Minar in Delhi is made

up of wrought iron which is low carbon steel. It is 8
meters high and 6000 kg in weight. Indian iron
craftsmen constructed this pillar in 400 BC.
Though wrought iron rusts slowly with time, the
ironworkers have developed a process that
prevented the wrought iron pillar from rusting even
after thousands of years.
The formation of a thin film of magnetic oxide of
iron on the surface has prevented corrosion. This
thin layer was formed on the surface of the pillar as
a result of finishing treatment given to the pillar by
painting it with a mixture of different salts, then
heating and rapid cooling. This pillar stands in a
good condition more than 2000 years after it was
made.
This pillar has not rusted at all. It suggests that
ancient Indians were well-versed in metals and
alloys.
Qutub Minar near by Iron
pillar
 Q. What are Factors for Selection of Engineering Materials?
Following factors affecting the selection of materials:

• Selection of Alloys based on Optimal performance of Products

(Component shape & its dimension tolerance, Properties,
applications requirement)
• Price and availability of raw materials.
• Market demand of the alloys.
• Manufacturing requirement & its availability( In-house /Out
sourcing - within country/ abroad)[Melting & Remelting, Hot/Cold
Working, HT, Machining, Testings]
• Tentative Costing of the Manufacturing of the products
[Cost of materials, cost of processing, including plant’s over heads
& profits share]
• Testing and Inspection( third party inspection)
 Procedure for Material’s selection
The selection of appropriate material and its
subsequent conversion into a useful product
with desired shape and properties can be a
rather complex process. Nearly every
engineered item goes through a sequence of
activities that includes:
Design  Material selection  Process
selection  Production Evaluation  and
possible redesign or modification.
 Basic Classification of Engineering Materials

A. Basically Engineering Materials can be classified into two

categories-
1. Metals
2. Non-Metals
1. Metals
• Metals are polycrystalline bodies which are having number of
differentially oriented fine crystals. Normally major metals are in
solid states at normal temperature. However, some metals such
as mercury are also in liquid state at normal temperature.
• All metals are having high thermal and electrical conductivity.
All metals are having positive temperature coefficient of
resistance. Means resistance of metals increases with increase in
temperature.
Example of metals:– Silver, Copper, Gold, Aluminium, Iron, Zinc,
Lead, Tin etc.
 Metals can be further divided into two groups
bases on metallurgy:-
• Ferrous Metals – All ferrous metals are having iron as
common element. All ferrous materials are having very
high permeability which makes these materials suitable
for construction of core of electrical machines &
Structures.
Examples:- Iron, Wrought Iron, Cast Iron, Steel, Silicon
Steel, High Speed Steel, Spring Steel etc.

• Non-Ferrous Metals - All non-ferrous metals are having

very low permeability.
Example:- Silver, Copper, Gold, Nickel, Cobalt, Titanium,
Aluminium etc.
2. Non-Metals
• Non-Metal materials are non-crystalline in
nature. This exists in amorphic or
mesomorphic forms. These are available in
both solid and gaseous forms at normal
temperature. Normally all non-metals are bad
conductor of heat and electricity.
• Examples:- Plastics, Rubber, Leathers, Asbestos
etc. As these non-metals are having very high
resistivity which makes them suitable for
insulation purpose in electrical machines.
B. Engineering materials can also be classified as below:-

a) Metals(Ferrous & Non-ferrous) and Alloys:

• Metals are polycrystalline bodies which are have number of
differentially oriented fine crystals. Normally major metals are in
solid states at normal temperature. However, some metals such as
mercury are also in liquid state at normal temperature.
• Pure metals are having very a low mechanical strength, which
sometimes does not match with the mechanical strength required
for certain applications.
• To overcome this draw back alloys are used. Alloys are the
composition of two or more metals or metal and non-metals
together.
• Alloys are having good mechanical strength, low temperature
coefficient of resistance. Example: Steels, Brass, Bronze, Gunmetal,
Invar. Super Alloys etc.
b) Ceramic Materials
• Ceramic materials are non-metallic solids. These are made of
inorganic compounds such as Oxides, Nitrides, Silicates and
Carbides. Ceramic materials possess exceptional Structural,
Electrical, Magnetic, Chemical and Thermal properties. These
ceramic materials are now extensively used in different
engineering fields.
Examples: Silica, glass, cement, concrete, garnet, Mgo, ZnO, SiC
etc.
c) Organic Materials
• All organic materials are having carbon as a common
element. In organic materials carbon is chemically combined
with oxygen, hydrogen and other non-metallic substances.
Generally organic materials are having complex chemical
bonding.
Example: Plastics, PVC, Synthetic Rubbers etc.
 Q. Why are alloys developed? Or,
What does alloy mean in Engineering?

• Almost all metals are used as alloys—It means that, it is

used as mixtures of several elements [Metals- Fe, Cr, Ni,
Co, Ti, Al, Mn, W, Cu or Non-metals- C, S, P, Si, N,O]—
because these actions develop properties superior to
pure metals.
• Alloying is done for many reasons, typically to increase
strength (physical) and corrosion resistance (chemical),
or reduce costs.
• Alloys are usually classified as substitutional or interstitial
alloys, depending on the atomic arrangement that forms
the alloy. They can be further classified as homogeneous
(consisting of a single phase), or heterogeneous
(consisting of two or more phases) or intermetallic.
 Q. What is the process of making an alloy?

• An alloy is created by mixing metal with another

component, either metal or non-metal
substance.
• Metal alloys are generally made by melting the
substances, mixing them together in a refractory
crucible and cast into sand or CI moulds including
CC copper mould route, which then leave them
for cooling to room temperature, obtaining in a
solid material component (Products will be either
Cast or wrought).
For examples: ..Cast components+HT+Finishing+Testing etc.
Wrought: Ingots Hot processing(Forging+Rolling)+HTTesting etc.
 Q. What are the different types / Classification of alloys?

Followings are example of the most popular alloys and

their applications.
A. Cast Iron :Grey, Nodular, Malleable ,Ductile Cast Iron.
B. Plain Carbon Steel
• Maraging Steel( High Strength with toughness);
• Stainless Steel Alloys ( Strength with Corrosion resistance);
C. Super Alloys(Strength at high Temperature);
• Nickel based Alloys.
• Cobalt based Alloys
• Iron based Alloys
D. Titanium and its Alloys
E. Aluminium & Its Alloys
F. Examples of some alloys in next slides:
Alloys, composition, properties and applications
 The End

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Next Class- Brief Description of different alloys:
What is cast iron?
Cast iron: