AQA A Level Psychology

Paper 1: Memory

AQA A Level Revision Pack

 Specification Content;
What the AQA say you should know…

• The multi-store model of memory: sensory

register, STM & LTM.

• Features of each store: coding, capacity,

duration & encoding.
Multi Store Model of Memory;
Multi Store Model of Memory;
AO1

• Memory is shown as a flow of information through a system.

• There are capacity and duration limitations at each stage.
• Transfer of information between each stage may require encoding (Acoustic to STM/Semantic to LTM)
• Sensory information from the environment can be registered for short time before decaying.
• If given attention passed to STM Capacity of 7 +/- 2 items and duration of 30 seconds.
• Lost from STM through displacement or decay.
• Material that is rehearsed passed on to LTM – unlimited capacity and duration although can be lost
through retrieval failure or interference.

Sensory Register Short Term Memory Long Term Memory

•Automatic response to receiving information.
•First storage system in the MSM.
•Holds unprocessed information.
•There are separate stores for different inputs:
echoic store- auditory, iconic store- visual,
haptic store- tactile, gustatory store- taste &
olfactory store- smell.
•Large capacity but very short duration.
•Information is held here so it can be used for
immediate tasks e.g. working on a maths
problem.
•Limited duration of up to 30 seconds.
•Repetition keeps information here.
•Information arrives in its original format & is
re-coded in a form that is easier to deal with.
E.g. visual, acoustic, semantic.
•Research suggests the main form of encoding
here is acoustic.
•Capacity is 5-9 items. (Miller’s magic number)
•Stores information for lengthy periods of
time.
•There are different kinds of stores here.
Some are easier to access than others.
•Info is mostly encoded semantically.
•Unlimited capacity.
•Information can last here for up to a lifetime.
However it can be lost due to decay or
interference.
 Multi Store Model of Memory;
Peterson & Peterson (1959)
Aim… Findings…
Peterson and Peterson wanted to know if rehearsal was needed
to transfer information from the STM into the LTM.
To investigate the duration of short-term memory, and provide
• The longer the interval delay the less trigrams were
empirical evidence for the multi-store model. recalled. Participants were able to recall 80% of
trigrams after a 3 seconds delay.

Procedure… • However, after 18 seconds less than 10% of trigrams

were recalled correctly.

•A lab experiment was conducted in which 24 participants

(psychology students) had to recall trigrams (meaningless
three-consonant syllables, e.g. TGH).

•To prevent rehearsal participants were asked to count

backwards in threes or fours from a specified random
number until they saw a red light appear.

•This is known as the brown peterson technique.

•Participants were asked to recall trigrams after intervals of
3, 6, 9, 12, 15 or 18 seconds.
Conclusion…
Short-term memory has a limited duration when rehearsal is
prevented.
It is thought that this information is lost from short-term
memory from trace decay.
The results of the study also show the short-term memory is
different from long-term memory in terms of duration. Thus
supporting the multi-store model of memory.
Multi Store Model of Memory;
AO3
 Specification Content;
What the AQA say you should know…

• The working memory model: central

executive, phonological loop, visuo-spatial
sketchpad & episodic buffer.

• Features of the model: coding and capacity.

Working Memory Model
 Working Memory Model:
AO1

• Baddeley and Hitch suggested that the description of the short term memory in the multi-store of memory was flawed. They argued
that the STM is not as simplistic as the MSM suggests and is capable of much more than Atkinson and Shiffrin proposed.

• Baddeley & Hitch proposed the working memory model which replaces the idea of the short term memory in the multi-store model.
The first key feature of the working memory model is the central executive. This is the most important part of the model as it is
involved in problem-solving & decision making. It controls attention, plays a major role in planning and integrates information from
the slave systems as well as LTM. It is flexible and can process material in acoustic, visual or semantic format. It has limited capacity
which means that it can only attend to a limited number of things at one time.

• The working memory also has three slave systems. One of these is the phonological loop. This stores a limited number of speech-
based sounds for brief periods. It is made up of two parts: the phonological store (also known as the inner ear), which allows
acoustic items to be stored for a brief period; and the articulatory control process (also known as the inner voice), this allows sub-
vocal repetition of items stored in the phonological store.

• The second of the slave systems is the visuo-spatial scratch pad. This stores visual and spatial information and is also known as the
inner eye. It is responsible for setting up and manipulating mental images and also has a limited capacity. The visuo-spatial scratch
pad and the phonological loop both work independently of each other, this makes it possible to perform dual-tasks which require the
use of both parts of the working memory.

• The third of the slave systems is the episodic buffer. This was added to the model in 2000. The episodic buffer integrates and
manipulates material. It has limited capacity and depends on the central executive. It is capable of binding together information
from different sources, into chunks or episodes. One of its important features is to integrate material from LTM to meet the
requirements of working memory.
 Working Memory Model:
Baddeley and Hitch (1976)
Aim… Findings…
To investigate if participants can use different parts
• As the number of digits increased in the digit span
of working memory at the same time. tasks, participants took longer to answer the reasoning
questions, but not much longer - only fractions of a
second.
Procedure…
• Participants didn't make any more errors in the verbal
reasoning tasks as the number of digits increased.
•Conducted an experiment in which participants
• Performance on both tasks was good.
were asked to perform two tasks at the same time
(dual task technique)

•A digit span task which required them to repeat a

Conclusion…
list of numbers (PL)

•A verbal reasoning task which required them to

answer true or false to various questions (e.g., B is
followed by A?) (CE)
•Their performance on both tasks was measured.
The verbal reasoning task made use of the central
executive and the digit span task made use of the
phonological loop.
As the tasks used different components of the WM
they were able to perform well on both.
Working Memory Model:
AO3
 Specification Content;
What the AQA say you should know…

• Types of long-term memory:

– Episodic
– Semantic
– Procedural.
 Types of Long Term Memory
Episodic Memory
•This is an explicit form of LTM. You
have to make a conscious effort to
recall it.
•It gives individuals an
autobiographical record of their
personal experiences.
•Examples of memories stored here
are when your birthday is, the
circumstances of your child being born
etc.
•The emotions present at the time
effect how the memory is coded.
Traumatic events are often well
remembered due to the emotional
content.
•Highly processed personal events are
more easily recalled.
•Personal memories are ‘time stamped’
& include several elements such as
places, people etc.
AO1
Semantic Memory
•This is an explicit form of LTM. You
have to make a conscious effort to
recall it.
•Contains all the knowledge a person
knows about the world (but not when
they learnt it).
•This type of memory has been
described as a cross between a
dictionary & an encyclopedia.
•Examples of memories stored here
are the taste of an orange, the process
of applying for university etc.
•The strength of these memories is
positively linked to the degree of
processing.
•Over time, some episodic memories
can become this kind of memory. E.g.
university application.
Procedural Memory
•This is an implicit form of LTM. You
do not consciously recall this
information.
•Many of these types of LTM are
learned in early life. E.g. riding a bike,
walking, getting dressed etc.
•Driving a car is an example of this
kind of LTM that we learn later on in
life.
•The skills required for this kind of
LTM are often difficult to describe
because we do not consciously recall
them.
Types of Long Term Memory
AO3
 Specification Content;
What the AQA say you should know…

Explanations for forgetting:

• Proactive and Retroactive Interference
• Retrieval failure due to absence of
cues.
 Interference Theory of Forgetting
AO1

It was assumed that memory can be disrupted or interfered with by what we have previously learned or by what we will learn
in the future. This idea suggests that information in long term memory may become confused or combined with other
information during encoding thus distorting or disrupting memories.
Interference theory states that forgetting occurs because memories interfere with and disrupt one another, in other words
forgetting occurs because of interference from other memories (Baddeley, 1999). There are two ways in which interference
can cause forgetting:

Proactive Interference Retroactive Interference

(pro = “forward”) occurs when you cannot learn a new task (retro = “backward”) occurs when you forget something
because of old learning – so something you have already you have already learnt because you are learning something
learnt is interfering with your ability to learn something new. new. In other words, new learning interferes with older
learning.

Proactive and retroactive Interference is thought to be more likely to occur where the memories are similar, for example:
confusing old and new telephone numbers. Chandler (1989) stated that students who study similar subjects at the same time
often experience interference.
Previous learning can sometimes interfere with new learning (e.g. difficulties we have with foreign currency when travelling
abroad). Also new learning can sometimes cause confusion with previous learning. (Starting French may affect our memory
of previously learned Spanish vocabulary).
 Interference Theory of Forgetting
Underwood & Postman (1960)

Aim… Findings…

To see if trying to learn something new would make us

• Group 2 could remember more of the words from
forget something we’ve already learnt.
the list A than group 1

Procedure…
Conclusion…

A lab experiment was used.

This study shows us that new learning will cause old
Participants were divided into two groups – group 1
learning to be lost, disrupted, or confused. This is an
and group 2.
example of retroactive interference.
Group 1 were asked to learn a list of word pairs (list A)
This may explain why people find it difficult to learn
and then learn a second list of word pairs (list B).
two similar languages.
Group 2 were asked to learn List A only.

Both groups were then asked to recall as many words

as they could remember from list A.
Interference Theory of Forgetting
AO3
 Retrieval Failure Theory of Forgetting
AO1

• A problem with accessibility, the all too familiar case of tip of

the tongue phenomenon!
• This theory argues that information in LTM is only accessible if
the appropriate cues are present
• One aspect of the target word(s) we normally report knowing
is the first letter. We know for a fact that it begins with ‘G.’ Context Dependent Forgetting
• Brown (1991), reviewed 25 years of research into tip of the
tongue phenomena and found that we accurately remember Information stored in our LTM is more difficult to access if we
the initial letter between 50 and 70% of the time.
are in a different situation or environment to when we learnt
• More often than not we can also report the number of the information
syllables in the word.

Encoding specificity principle:

• The idea that a cue or clue to a memory needs to be present
when the material is learned (encoded) and when it is recalled
or retrieved. State Dependent Forgetting
• Tulving (1979), found that the closer the cue to the target
word the better our recall.
Information stored in our LTM is more difficult to access if we
• Some psychologists believe that all forgetting is cue
dependent.
are in a different emotional or psychological state to when we
learnt the information.
• That is, we never really forget anything form our LTM.
Provided some form of clue is given we could remember
anything!
• This is the basis of the cognitive interview technique
 Retrieval Failure Theory of Forgetting
Godden & Baddeley (1969)

Aim… Findings…
To find out if the situation we are in when we are asked • Participants remembered more words when they
to recall information affects our ability to remember it. had to recall them in the same situation as they
learnt them.

Procedure…

Participants consisted of 13 males and 5 females who

were trained divers.

They were split into two groups:

Group 1 learned a list of words on land.
Group 2 learned the same list of words 20 feet under
water.

Both groups were then asked to recall the list of words Conclusion…
on land and under water.
This study tells us that we are more likely to forget
information if it is recalled in a different context to
which it was learned
Retrieval Failure Theory of Forgetting
AO3
 Specification Content;
What the AQA say you should know…

Factors effecting eyewitness testimony

including:
• Anxiety
• Leading Questions
• Post-Event Discussion.
 Anxiety and Eyewitness Testimony
Loftus (1979)
Aim…
To find out if anxiety during a witnessed incident
affects the accuracy of eyewitness testimony.
Procedure…
Participants were exposed to one of two conditions:
1.They overheard a low-key discussion in a laboratory
about equipment failure. A person then emerged with
grease on their hands & holding a pen.
1.The overheard a heated & hostile exchange between
people in a laboratory. After the sound of breaking
glass & crashing chairs a man emerged holding a paper
knife (letter opener) and covered in blood.
Participants were then given 50 photos & asked to
identify the person who had come out of the lab.
Findings…
• Those who witnessed the man holding the pen
could accurately identify the person 49% of the
time.
• Those who witnessed the man holding the knife
could accurately identify the person 33% of the
time.
Conclusion…
This study highlighted the ‘weapon focus phenomenon’
where the witness concentrates on the weapon & this
distracts attention from the appearance of the
perpetrator.
The fear induced by the sight of the weapon narrows
the focus of attention & allows accurate recall of the
central details but poor recall of the peripheral detail.
Anxiety and Eyewitness Testimony
Loftus (1979)
 Misleading Information and EWT
AO1

Post-Event Discussion
Misleading Information
PED occurs when there is more
Incorrect info given to an Leading Questions than one witness to an event.
eyewitness usually after the
A question which, because of the Witnesses may discuss what they
event. It can take many forms
way that it is phrased, suggests have seen with co-witnesses or
such as leading questions & post
a certain answer. E.g. How old other people. This may influence
event discussion between co-
was the young man? the accuracy of each witness’s
witnesses and/or other people.
recall of the event.
 Leading Questions and EWT
Loftus & Palmer (1974)
Aim… Findings…
To investigate the idea that asking leading questions
has an affect on the accuracy of recall in eyewitness Participants speed estimate was influenced by the verb
testimony. in the question.

Procedure…
Verb Mean
estimate
• 45 students were shown 7 films of different traffic Smashed 40.8
accidents.
Collided 39.3
• After each film the participants were given a
Bumped 38.1
questionnaire which asked them to describe the
accident & then answer a series of questions. Hit 34
• There was one CRITICAL question ‘About how fast Contacted 31.8
were the cars going when they …’
• There were 5 groups & each group was given a
different verb in this question- hit, smashed,
collided, bumped or contacted.
Conclusion…

This study tells us that the word used in the question

led the participants to believe the car was going faster
than it actually was.
 Leading Questions and EWT
Loftus & Palmer (1974)
Aim…
To investigate the idea that asking leading questions
has an affect on the accuracy of recall in eyewitness Findings…
testimony.
Participants in the smashed condition were more likely
Procedure… to recall seeing glass even though there was no broken
glass on the video.

• Participants were divided into three groups &

Smashed Hit Control
shown a film of a car accident which lasted 1
minute and asked questions about speed.
Yes 16 7 6

• Participants were asked to return a week later No 34 43 44

when they were asked a series of 10 questions
about the accident including another CRITICAL
question ‘Did you see any broken glass’. There was
no broken glass
Conclusion…

This study suggests that leading questions delete the

original memory of an event and change the actual
memory.
 Post Event Discussion and EWT
Gabbert et al (2003)
Aim…

To investigate the impact of post-event discussion on Findings…

the accuracy of eyewitness accounts.

71% of participants mistakenly recalled aspects of the

Procedure… event that they had not witnessed, but picked up from
the post-event discussion.

A control group who had no post-event discussion had

• Participants were put into pairs. Each participant
0% mistaken recalled aspects of the event.
watched a video of the same crime, but filmed from
different points of view.

• This meant that each participant could see

elements in the event that the other could not. E.g
only one participants could see the title of a book
being carried by a young woman.
• Both participants then discussed what they had
seen before individually completing a test of recall.
Conclusion…
This study shows evidence for the phenomenon
memory conformity – this is where witnesses go along
with each other, either to win social approval or
because they believe the other witnesses are right &
they are wrong.
Misleading Information and EWT
AO3
 Specification Content;
What the AQA say you should know…

Improving the accuracy of eyewitness

testimony, including the use of the
cognitive interview.
 The Cognitive Interview
AO1

A police technique for interviewing witnesses to a crime, which encourages them to recreate the original context of the crime
in order to increase the accessibility of stored information. Because our memory is made up of a network of associations
rather than discrete events, memories are accessed using multiple retrieval strategies.
 The Cognitive Interview
Geiselman (1985)
Aim… Findings…

Geiselman set out to investigate the effectiveness of • The average number of correctly recalled facts
the cognitive interview. for the cognitive interview was 41.2, for hypnosis
it was 38.0 and for the standard interview it was
29.4.
Procedure…
• There was no significant difference in the number
of errors in each condition
A lab experiment was used.

89 Participants viewed a police training film of a violent Conclusion…

crime and, after 48 hours, were interviewed by a
policeman using one of three methods:
1.The cognitive interview;
2.A standard interview used by the Los Angeles Police;
3.Hypnosis.
The cognitive interview leads to better memory for
events, with witnesses able to recall more relevant
information compared with a traditional interview
method.

The number of facts accurately recalled and the

number of errors made were recorded.
The Cognitive Interview
AO3