Harry Stack Sullivan (1892–1949)

He developed a theory of personality development

that focused on interpersonal relationships and the
importance of social interactions in shaping an
individual's personality. Sullivan's theory describes
several developmental stages, often referred to as
"interpersonal stages," that individuals go through
as they grow and mature. These stages are
characterized by shifts in interpersonal
relationships and the development of key
interpersonal skills.
Developmental Epochs:
Developmental Epochs Sullivan saw interpersonal
development as taking place over seven stages, from
infancy to mature adulthood. Personality changes can
take place at any time but are more likely to occur
during transitions between stages.
Personality
Personality is an energy system.
Tension-Potentiality for action
Energy Transformation-action themselves
Like Horney and Fromm, Sullivan emphasizes the
interpersonal nature of personality.
But whereas Horney concentrates on neurosis, and
Fromm stresses the pathogenic role of society
To devise a theory that retains the importance of the unconscious but
stresses the social determinants of personality, notably the parents but
also schoolmates, friends, and love interests, rather than instincts.
To dispense with virtually all Freudian constructs, including libido,
and use his own unique terminology.
To correct Freud’s pessimistic view of human nature by showing
that we have an inherent drive toward mental health.
To show that personality development proceeds through a series of
seven stages from infancy to adulthood, rather than ending at age six
as Freud contended.
To show that intense anxiety is an extremely important aspect of
psychopathology, and that anxiety in the mother (or whichever adult
fulfills this function) is its primary cause.
To emphasize that we need other people, and denying this need is
also a major cause of psychopathology.
To explain the causes and dynamics of schizophrenia.
To devise improved methods for treating schizophrenia and other
psychological disorders.
Tensions
Like Freud and Jung, Sullivan (1953) saw personality as
an energy system. Energy can exist either as tension
(potentiality for action) or as actions themselves (energy
transformations). Energy transformations transform
tensions into either covert or overt behaviors and are
aimed at satisfying needs and reducing anxiety.
Tension is a potentiality for action that may or may not
be experienced in awareness.
 Needs
Needs are tensions brought on by biological imbalance
between a person and the physiochemical environment,
both inside and outside the organism.
Needs are episodic—once they are satisfied, they
temporarily lose their power, but after a time, they are
likely to reoccur.
The most basic interpersonal need is tenderness. An infant
develops a need to receive tenderness from its primary
caretaker. Tenderness is a general need because it is
concerned with the overall wellbeing of a person.
Anxiety
A second type of tension, anxiety, differs from tensions
of needs in that it is either/or, is more diffuse and vague,
and calls forth no consistent actions for its relief. If
infants lack food (a need), their course of action is clear;
but if they are anxious, they can do little to escape from
that anxiety.
How does anxiety originate? Sullivan (1953) postulated
that it is transferred from the parent to the infant
through the process of empathy.
Energy Transformations
Tensions that are transformed into actions, either overt or
covert, are called energy transformations.
This somewhat awkward term simply refers to our behaviors
that are aimed at satisfying needs and reducing anxiety—the
two great tensions. Not all energy transformations are
obvious, overt actions; many take the form of emotions,
thoughts, or covert behaviors that can be hidden from other
people.
Dynamisms
Energy transformations become organized as typical
behavior patterns that characterize a person throughout a
lifetime. Sullivan (1953) called these behavior patterns
dynamisms, a term that means about the same as traits or
habit patterns.
Dynamisms are of two major classes:
First, those related to specific zones of the body,
including the mouth, anus, and genitals;
Second, those related to tensions.
This second class is composed of three categories—the
disjunctive, the isolating, and the conjunctive.
Disjunctive dynamisms include those destructive
patterns of behavior that are related to the concept of
malevolence (ILL WILL);
isolating dynamisms include those behavior patterns
(such as lust) that are unrelated to interpersonal relations;
conjunctive dynamisms include beneficial behavior
patterns, such as intimacy and the self-system.
Personifications
Beginning in infancy and continuing throughout the various
developmental stages, people acquire certain images of
themselves and others.
These images, called personifications, may be relatively
accurate, or because they are colored by people’s needs and
anxieties, they may be grossly distorted.
Sullivan (1953) described three basic personifications that
develop during infancy—the bad-mother, the good mother,
and the me. In addition, some children acquire an eidetic
personification (imaginary playmate) during childhood.
Bad-Mother, Good-Mother
Sullivan’s notion of the bad-mother and good-mother is
similar to Klein’s concept of the bad breast and good
breast.
The bad-mother personification, in fact, grows out of the
infant’s experiences with the bad-nipple: that is, the
nipple that does not satisfy hunger needs.
The bad-me personification is fashioned from
experiences of punishment and disapproval that infants
receive from their mothering one.
The bad-mother personification is almost completely
undifferentiated, in as much as it includes everyone involved
in the nursing situation. It is not an accurate image of the
“real” mother but merely the infant’s vague representation of
not being properly fed.
Good mother personification based on the tender and
cooperative behaviors of the mothering one. These two
personifications, one based on the infant’s perception of an
anxious, malevolent mother and the other based on a calm,
tender mother, combine to form a complex personification
composed of contrasting qualities projected onto the same
person. Until the infant develops language, however, these
two opposing images of mother can easily coexist (Sullivan,
1953).
The good-me personification results from infants’
experiences with reward and approval.
Me Personifications
During mid infancy a child acquires three me
personifications (bad-me, good-me, and not-me) that form the
building blocks of the self personification. Each is related to
the evolving conception of me or my body.
Sudden severe anxiety, however, may cause an infant to
form the not-me personification and to either dissociate or
selectively in attended experiences related to that anxiety.
An infant denies these experiences to the me image so that
they become part of the not-me personification.
 Eidetic Personifications
Not all interpersonal relations are with real people; some are
eidetic personifications: that is, unrealistic traits or imaginary
friends that many children invent in order to protect their self-
esteem. Sullivan (1964) believed that these imaginary friends
may be as significant to a child’s development as real
playmates. Eidetic personifications, however, are not limited
to children; most adults see fictitious traits in other people.
Levels of Cognition
Sullivan divided cognition into three levels or modes of
experience: prototaxic, parataxic, and syntaxic. Levels of
cognition refer to ways of perceiving, imagining, and
conceiving.
Prototaxic level are impossible to communicate. The earliest and
most primitive experiences of an infant take place on a prototaxic
level. Because these experiences cannot be communicated to others,
they are difficult to describe or define
Parataxic experiences are personal, pre-logical, and communicated
only in distorted form. Parataxic experiences are prelogical and
usually result when a person assumes a cause-and-effect relationship
between two events that occur coincidentally
Syntaxic cognition is meaningful interpersonal communication.
Experiences that are consensually validated and that can be
symbolically communicated take place on a syntaxic level.
Consensually validated experiences are those on whose meaning two
or more persons agree.
Father of interpersonal psychiatry or Interpersonal
Psychoanalysis
He proposed interpersonal theory of personality.
He explained the role of interpersonal relationships
and social experiences in shaping personality.
He also explained about the importance of current
life events to psychopathology.
The theory further states that the purpose of all
behavior is to get needs met through interpersonal
interactions and decrease or avoid anxiety.
 Sullivan’s own relationships with other people
were seldom satisfying. As a child, he was lonely and
physically isolated; as an adolescent, he suffered at
least one schizophrenic episode; and as an adult, he
experienced only superficial and ambivalent
interpersonal relationships.
Despite, or perhaps because of, these
interpersonal difficulties, Sullivan contributed much
to an understanding of human personality
 Stages of development
Sullivan explained six developmental stages called "epochs"
or heuristic Stages in Development.

Stages (Epochs) Characteristics

Infancy (Birth-18
1 Gratification of needs
months)
2 Childhood (18 m-6 yrs) Delayed gratification

3 Juvenile era(6-9 yrs) Formation of peer group

Developing relationships within same
4 Preadolescence (9-12 yrs)
gender
Early Adolescence (12-
5 Identity
14 yrs)
Late Adolescence (14-21 Forming lasting, intimate
6
relationships
Adulthood ( Ages 23
7 onwards Establish stable relationship
 Infancy Stage
Discuss the infancy stage, which covers the period from
birth to around 18 months.
Explain that during this stage, the infant learns to
differentiate between self and others.
Highlight the importance of maternal-infant interactions
in developing a sense of security and trust.
Childhood Stage
Explain the childhood stage, spanning from 18 months to
approximately 6 years.
Emphasize the role of playmates and peers in developing
social skills.
Discuss how children learn about the world through their
interactions with caregivers and peers.
Juvenile Stage
Describe the juvenile stage, occurring between 6 years
and puberty.
Discuss the significance of same-sex friendships and peer
groups.
Explain how the child begins to develop a sense of
identity through these interactions.
Pre-adolescence Stage
Explain the preadolescence stage, which encompasses the
period leading up to adolescence.
Discuss the emergence of more complex peer
relationships and the influence of role models.
Highlight the role of early romantic interests in shaping
social development.
Early Adolescence Stage
Discuss the early adolescence stage, typically occurring
around the onset of puberty.
Explain how romantic relationships become more
significant.
Emphasize the importance of peer acceptance and
conformity during this stage.
Late Adolescence Stage
Describe the late adolescence stage, covering the later
teenage years.
Discuss the development of more mature and intimate
relationships.
Explain how identity consolidation and career choices
become prominent during this stage.
Adulthood Stage
Discuss adulthood, which includes the transition from
late adolescence into adulthood.
Emphasize the importance of intimate relationships and
friendships.
Mention the ongoing development of social and
vocational roles.
Sullivan explained about three types of self:
The ‘good me’ versus the ‘bad me’ based on social appraisal
and the anxiety that results from negative feedback
The ‘not me’ refers to the unknown, repressed component of
the self.
Sullivan's theory explains about anxiety, self system and self-
esteem:
Security operations –those measures that the individual
employs to reduce anxiety and enhance security.
Self system – all of the security operations an individual uses
to defend against anxiety and ensure self esteem