Nucleic Acids and

Protein Synthesis
What IS the physical “factor”
identified by Mendel?
How do “factors” produce
phenotypes? What is the molecular
basis for the “genetic code?”
Scientists could narrow it down to
molecules found in the nucleus: DNA,
RNA, or protein?
Most thought proteins, because they’re
much more diverse and complex
 Griffith’s
Transformation
While working with
pneumonia in
1928, Griffith
transformed or
changed bacteria
from one form to
another.
 Avery’s Experiments
What is the
“transforming factor”?
Avery used enzymes to
destroy molecules from
the heat killed cells
before transforming
harmless cells.
Concluded: DNA is the
transforming factor.
 Hershey-Chase Experiment
Alfred Hershey & Martha Chase:
Radioactively label viral protein vs.
DNA, let the phages infect bacteria,
then separate them
Bacteria had the DNA trace, not the
protein trace
Rosalind Franklin & Photo 51
Used X-ray diffraction to photograph
crystallized DNA molecules.
Showed the helical shape and
repeating structure of the DNA
molecule
The Double Helix
In 1953, James
Watson and Francis
Crick used scientific
evidence reported by
other scientists to
suggest a model for
the DNA structure as a
double helix
 Nucleic Acids
Information
molecules
Examples
 DNA
 Deoxyribonucleic
Acid
 RNA
 Ribonucleic Acid

RNA
 Nucleic Acids
 Function:
 genetic material
 stores information
 genes
 blueprint for building proteins
 DNA  RNA  proteins
DNA  transfers information
 blueprint for new cells
 blueprint for next generation

proteins
proteins
 Nucleic acids
 Building block = nucleotides
nucleotide – nucleotide – nucleotide – nucleotide
 5 different nucleotides
Nitrogen bases
 different nitrogen bases I’m the
A,T,C,G or U
 A, T, C, G, U part!

sugar N base

phosphate
 4 Types of Nitrogenous Bases in
DNA

Purines: have 2 rings (Adenine and

Guanine)
Pyrimidines: have 1 ring (Thymine and
Cytosine)
Complementary Base Pairing
Chargaff’s Base Pairing Rule:
Chargaff determined that the amount
of Adenine = amount of Thymine, and
the amount of Guanine = the amount
of Cytosine.
The bases are connected to each
other in the double helix by hydrogen
bonds.
A pairs with T
C pairs with G
 DNA
 Double strand twists into a double helix
 Hydrogen bonds between nitrogen bases
that join the 2 strands are weak
 the two strands can

separate and reattach

with relative ease
 Copying DNA
 A dividing cell duplicates its DNA in S
phase
 creates 2 copies of all DNA (sister
chromatids)
 separates the 2 copies to 2 daughter cells

DNA

cell

nucleus
 Copying DNA
 Matching bases allows
DNA to be easily copied
 Making new DNA
 Copying DNA
 replication
 DNA starts as a double-stranded

molecule
 matching bases (A:T, C:G)
 then it unzips…
 DNA replication
 Strands “unzip” at the weak bonds
between bases
 Done by an enzyme, helicase
DNA replication

DNA bases
in nucleus
 Enzyme DNA
polymerase
 matches free-floating
bases to exposed strand
DNA
polymerase
 New copies of DNA
 Get 2 exact copies of DNA to split between new
cells
 Each copy = one original strand, one new strand

DNA
polymerase

DNA
polymerase
DNA Replication-Review
double-stranded
human chromosomes
ready for mitosis
From Gene to Protein
 DNA  Proteins  Cells  Bodies
 DNA has the information to build proteins

proteins
cells

bodies
DNA gets all the glory,
Proteins do all the work
 What do we know?
 DNA
 DNA is the genetic information
 Proteins
 proteins run living organisms
 enzymes

 all chemical reactions in living organisms are

controlled by enzymes (proteins)
 structure
 all living organisms are built out of proteins
 DNA is the instructions for making proteins
 What do we know?
 DNA
 DNA is in the nucleus
 want to keep it there = protected
 “locked in the vault”

 Proteins
 made by a “protein factory” in cytoplasm
 ribosomes
 Need to get gene (DNA) information
from nucleus to cytoplasm
 need a messenger!
 need a copy of DNA
 mRNA
nucleus
 Who is the messenger?
 messenger RNA (mRNA)
DNA

build proteins

RNA
nucleus mRNA
cytoplasm
 Protein Synthesis: Part 1
CELL CYTOPLASM

NUCLEUS
RIBOSOMES –
where proteins are
DNA –
made
stores info to
make proteins

mRNA

So… How
Where are does
Where
the the cell get the
instructions
are proteinsto instructions
made?
make proteins?
Itfrom
makes
the nucleus to the ribosomes?–
a copy to send called
messenger RNA
 From nucleus to cytoplasm

transcription

DNA mRNA protein

translation

trait
nucleus
cytoplasm
Flow of Genetic Information
1. A gene or segment of DNA is
located on a chromosome
2. The cell uses transcription to
copy the gene into a piece of mRNA
3. The RNA leaves the nucleus and
goes to a ribosome
4. The ribosome uses translation to
direct the assembly of a protein
5. Gene is now expressed in the cell
 RNA = Ribonucleic Acid
Structure:
Made of a single strand of nucleotides
Nucleotides use Ribose instead of Deoxyribose
Nitrogen base thymine is replaced by Uracil
Types:
Messenger RNA (mRNA): single stranded-
used to carry DNA code out of nucleus “working
copy”
Transfer RNA (tRNA): binds to specific amino
acids, used to build proteins
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): makes up ribosomes
along with proteins
 DNA vs. RNA
DNA RNA
 deoxyribose sugar  ribose sugar
 nitrogen bases  nitrogen bases
 G, C, A, T  G, C, A, U
 T = thymine  U = uracil
 T:A  U:A
 C:G  C:G
 double stranded  single stranded
 DNA vs. RNA
DNA

RNA DNA
 Transcription
 Making mRNA from DNA
 DNA strand is the
template (pattern)
 match bases
U:A
G:C
 Enzyme
 RNA polymerase
 Matching bases of DNA & RNA
 Double stranded DNA unzips

T G G T A C A G C T A G T C A T CG T A C CG T
 Matching bases of DNA & RNA
 Double stranded DNA unzips

T G G T A C A G C T A G T C A T CG T A C CG T
 Matching bases of DNA & RNA
A
 Match RNA bases to DNA G
C U
bases on one of the DNA G A

strands U G
C
U U
C G
A
A C
U
A
AG
C
U
A
RNA
A C C polymerase G

T G G T A C A G C T A G T C A T CG T A C CG T
 Matching bases of DNA & RNA
 U instead of T is matched to A

DNA TACGCACATTTACGTACGCGG

AUGCGUGUAAAUGCAUGCGCC
mRNA
 Transcription Steps
1. DNA has 2 complementary strands that follow base
pairing rules (A-T and C-G).
2. RNA Polymerase binds to the promoter (specific place
for polymerase to bind) on the DNA and begins
transcription
3. DNA strands separate or unzip.
4. One of the original strands serves as a template. RNA
polymerase binds new RNA nucleotides to the template
strand following base pairing rules. (A-U, C-G)
5. mRNA leaves the nucleus and carries the instructions to
the ribosomes. The DNA “re-zips”.
A–T A- - T A-U - T A–T U
C–G C- - C-G
G–C G G- -G G- C–G
A–T -C A C -C G G–C
C–G - -T A-U -T C A–T
T–A C- -G C-G U C–G G
1 T2- -G 3-4T- T – A5 A
-A A -A
 What do we know? nucleus

 DNA
 instructions remain in nucleus
 mRNA
 has the instructions for building
proteins from DNA A C C A U G U C G A U C A GU A GC A U G GC A

 Proteins a
 built as chains of amino acids a
a

 What reads RNA? a a

a
 need a mRNA reader! a
 ribosome a
a a
a a
a
 From gene to protein
cytoplasm
a
a
a
transcription translation a a
a

DNA mRNA protein a

a
a
a a
a
a
mRNA leaves ribosome a
A C CA U G U C G A U C A GU A GC A U GGC A
nucleus through
nuclear pores
proteins synthesized
nucleus by ribosomes using
instructions on mRNA
trait
 What do we know?
 mRNA A C C A U G U C G A U C A G U A G C A U GaG C A

a
 has the instructions for building proteins a
from DNA a a
a
 Proteins a
a
 built as chains of amino acids a
a a
 What reads mRNA? ribosome a
a
 ribosome a
 What brings the right amino acid to
attach to the protein chain?
 need an amino acid transporter!
 From gene to protein
Who is the transporter?
tRNA transports aminoa acids
a
a
transcription translation a a
a

DNA mRNA protein a

a
a
a a
a
a
ribosome a
A C CA U G U C G A U C A GU A GC A U GGC A
tRNA
a
a
nucleus cytoplasm trait
 RNA to protein
 mRNA leaves nucleus
 mRNA goes to ribosomes in cytoplasm
 Proteins built from instructions on mRNA
How?
mRNA
A C C A U G U C G A U C A GU A GC A U G GC A

aa aa aa aa aa aa aa aa
How does mRNA code for proteins?
DNA TACGCACATTTACGTACGCGG

AUGCGUGUAAAUGCAUGCGCC
mRNA

?
protein Met Arg Val Asn Ala Cys Ala
How can you code for 20 amino acids with only
4 nucleotide bases (A,U,G,C)?
 mRNA codes for proteins in triplets
DNA TACGCACATTTACGTACGCGG

codons
ribosome ribosome
AUGCGUGUAAAUGCAUGCGCC
mRNA

?
protein Met Arg Val Asn Ala Cys Ala
 Codon
 block of 3 nucleotides
 How are the codons matched to
amino acids?
DNA TACGCACATTTACGTACGCGG

AUGCGUGUAAAUGCAUGCGCC
mRNA
codon
UAC
tRNA GCA
CAU anti-codon
amino Met
acid Arg
Val
 mRNA to protein = Translation
 The reader ribosome
 The transporter  transfer RNA (tRNA)
ribosome
mRNA
A C C A U G U C G A U C A GU A GC A U G GC A

U G G
tRNA
U A C
A G C
aa tRNA
U AG
aa tRNA
aa aa tRNA
aa
aa
 Translation Steps
1. Initiation: Ribosome attaches to the mRNA at the start
codon (AUG)
2. tRNA with the complementary anti-codon (UAC) binds
to the mRNA codon bringing the amino acid methionine
with it.
3. Ribosome shifts down the mRNA to the next codon.
4. Elongation: Another tRNA with the complementary anti-
codon binds to the mRNA codon. The amino acid from
the tRNA binds to methionine.
5. The ribosome shifts again, another tRNA brings another
amino acid to bind to the growing amino acid chain.
6. Termination: Process continues until the ribosome
reads a stop codon, at which time it releases the
finished amino acid chain (AKA: protein)
 The mRNA code
 For ALL life!
 strongest support
for a common origin
for all life
 Code is redundant
 several codons for
each amino acid
 mutation insurance!

 Start codon
 AUG
 methionine
 Stop codons
 UGA, UAA, UAG
 Protein Synthesis
mRNA carries the instructions for making
proteins which are made of amino acids.
BUT ….
RNA language – A, U, C, G
Protein language – 20 different amino
acids (Ex. arginine, valine, serine, etc.)
How would you follow directions that were
written in a different language?
TRANSLATION
 The Genetic Code
RNA codes have to be translated into a
protein’s amino acid sequence
Read in 3 letter nucleotide “words” called
codons. Each codon codes for a specific
amino acid
Genetic code is universal to all living things
(hint that they are all related)
Special Codons:
Start: AUG: codes for methionine—helps a
ribosome bind on and starts the translation
Stop: UAA, UAG, UGA: tells the ribosome to
stop translating and release the finished
protein
The Genetic Code

“Magic RNA
Decoder
Ring”
Read by
starting at
the center
and working
outwards.
 From gene to protein
a
a
a
transcription translation a a
a

DNA mRNA protein a

a
a
a a
a
a
ribosome a
A C CA U G U C G A U C A GU A GC A U GGC A
tRNA
a
a
nucleus cytoplasm trait
 aa
aa
aa
cytoplasm aa
aa
transcription translation aa
aa
aa
protein
aa
aa

aa

nucleus
trait
From gene to protein
 DNA

transcription amino
acids

mRNA

Can you tell

the story?
protein
ribosome

tRNA
translation
Mutations
 Genes
 Genes code for proteins
 the order of A, T, C & G
 Proteins create traits
TACGCACATTTACGTACGCGG
DNA

AUGCGUGUAAAUGCAUGCGCC
mRNA

protein aa aa aa aa aa aa aa aa

trait
 Transcription & Translation
 Genes code for proteins through…
 transcription
trait
 translation
 Mutations
 Mutations are changes in DNA sequences
 changes to the order of A, T, C & G
 different order = different amino acid in

protein
 different protein structure = different

protein function

BB Bb bb
 Mutations
 Point mutations
 single base change
 silent mutation
 no amino acid change
 redundancy in code
 missense
 change amino acid
 nonsense
 change to stop codon
 Point mutation leads to Sickle cell anemia
What kind of mutation?
 Sickle cell anemia
 Primarily Africans
 recessive inheritance pattern
 strikes 1 out of 400 African Americans
 Mutations
 Frameshift
 shift in the reading
frame
 changes everything
“downstream”
 insertions
 adding base(s)
 deletions
 losing base(s)

Where would this mutation

cause the most change:
beginning or end of gene?
 Frameshift mutations
THERATANDTHECATATETHEREDBAT

Deletion
THERTANDTHECATATETHEREDBAT

Insertion
THERAATANDTHECATATETHEREDBAT
 Cystic fibrosis
 Primarily whites of
European descent
 strikes 1 in 2500 births
 1 in 25 whites is a carrier (Aa)
 normal allele codes for a membrane protein
that moves Cl- across cell membrane
 mutant channel limit movement of Cl- (& H2O) across cell
membrane
 thicker & stickier mucus coats cells
 mucus build-up in the pancreas, lungs, digestive tract &
causes bacterial infections
 without treatment children die before 5;
with treatment can live past their late 20s