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Chapter 2
Chapter 2
Sylvia S. Mader
Michael Windelspecht
Chapter 2
Basic Chemistry
Lecture Outline
1
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2.1 Chemical Elements
2
Elements
• An element is a substance that cannot be
broken down into substances with different
properties; composed of one type of atom.
• Six elements make up 95% of the body weight
of organisms: (acronym CHNOPS)
Carbon
Hydrogen
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Phosphorus
Sulfur
3
Composition of Earth’s Crust and Its Organisms
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Earth’s crust
60 organisms
Percent by Weight
40
20
0
Fe Ca K S P Si Al Mg Na O N C H
Element
4
Atoms
• An atom is the smallest part of an element
that displays the property of the element.
• An element and its atom share the same name.
Composed of subatomic particles: protons,
neutrons, electrons
Central nucleus
• Protons- positively charged, 1 amu
• Neutrons- no charge, 1 amu
Orbiting clouds around nucleus (electron shells)
• Electrons- negatively charged, very low
mass-negligible in calculations
5
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= proton
a. b.
Subatomic Particles
Proton +1 1 Nucleus
6
c.
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= proton
= neutron
a. b.
Subatomic Particles
Proton +1 1 Nucleus
Neutron 0 1 Nucleus
7
c.
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= proton
= neutron
= electron
a. b.
Subatomic Particles
Proton +1 1 Nucleus
Neutron 0 1 Nucleus
9
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mass number
atomic symbol
atomic number
10
Periodic Table
• Atoms of an element are arranged horizontally by
increasing atomic number in rows called periods.
• Atoms of an element arranged in vertical
columns are called groups.
Atoms within the same group share the same binding
characteristics.
• Atoms shown in the periodic table are electrically
neutral.
Therefore, the atomic number tells you the number of
electrons as well as the number of protons.
11
A Portion of the Periodic Table
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I VIII
1 atomic number 2
1 H atomic symbol atomic mass He
1.008 II III IV V VI VII 4.003
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
Periods
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
22.99 24.31 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.07 35.45 39.95
19 20 31 32 33 34 35 36
4 K Ca Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.10 40.08 69.72 72.59 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.60
Groups
12
Isotopes
• Isotopes are atoms of the same element that
differ in the number of neutrons (and therefore
different atomic masses).
Some isotopes spontaneously decay
• Radioactive isotopes give off energy in the form of rays and
subatomic particles
• Can be helpful or harmful
12 13 14
6 C 6 C 6 C
Carbon 12 Carbon 13 Carbon 14
13
Uses of Low Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Levels of Radiation
larynx
thyroid gland
trachea
a.
b.
a: © Biomed Commun./Custom Medical Stock Photo; b (left) : Courtesy National Institutes of Health;
14
b: (right) © Mazzlota et al./Photo Researchers, Inc
Uses of High Levels of Radiation
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a. b.
a: (Peaches): © Tony Freeman/PhotoEdit; b: © Geoff Tompkinson/SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.
15
Electrons and Energy
• Electrons are attracted to the positively charged
nucleus, thus it takes energy to hold electrons in
place.
• It takes energy to push them away and keep
them in their own shell.
The more distant the shell, the more energy it takes to
hold in place.
• Electrons have energy due to their relative
position (potential energy).
• Electrons determine chemical behavior of atoms.
16
The Distribution of Electrons
• The Bohr model is a useful way to visualize
electron location.
Electrons revolve around the nucleus in energy shells
(energy levels).
For atoms with atomic numbers of 20 or less, the
following rules apply:
• the first energy shell can hold up to 2 electrons
• each additional shell can hold up to 8 electrons
• each lower shell is filled first before electrons are
placed in the next shell
These rules cover most of the biologically
significant elements.
17
Valence Electrons
• The outermost energy shell is called the valence
shell.
18
Valence Electrons
• The number of electrons in an atom’s valence
shell determines whether the atom gives up,
accepts, or shares electrons to acquire eight
electrons in the outer shell.
– Atoms that have their valence shells
filled with electrons tend to be
chemically stable.
– Atoms that do not have their valence
shells filled with electrons are chemically
reactive.
19
Bohr Models of Atoms
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P S
O
20
2.2 Compounds and Molecules
• A molecule is two or more elements bonded
together.
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one molecule
22
Chemical Bonding
• Bonds that exist between atoms in
molecules contain energy.
• Bonds between atoms are caused by the
interactions between electrons in
outermost energy shells.
• The process of bond formation is called a
chemical reaction.
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Types of Bonds: Ionic Bonding
• An ion is an atom that has lost or gained an
electron.
• An ionic bond forms when electrons are
transferred from one atom to another atom and
the oppositely charged ions are attracted to one.
Example: formation of sodium chloride
24
Formation of Sodium Chloride
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Na Cl
25
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Na Cl
26
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Na Cl
+ –
Na Cl
Na Cl
+ – Na+ Cl–
Na Cl
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Types of Bonds: Covalent Bonds
• Covalent bonds result when two atoms share
electrons so each atom has an octet of electrons
in the outer shell.
Note: In the case of hydrogen, the outer energy shell
is complete when it contains 2 electrons.
• In a nonpolar covalent bond electrons are
shared equally between atoms.
Examples: hydrogen gas, oxygen gas, methane
29
Covalently
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Structural Molecular
Electron Model
Bonded
Formula Formula
Molecules H H H H H2
a. Hydrogen gas
O O O O O2
b. Oxygen gas
H C H H C H CH4
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c. Methane
Types of Bonds: Covalent Bonds
• In a polar covalent bond electrons are shared
unequally.
Example: water
• Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to
attract electrons towards itself in a chemical
bond.
In water, the oxygen atom is more electronegative
than the hydrogen atoms and the bonds are polar.
31
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H H
Electron Model
2.3 Chemistry of Water
Fig. 2.9
O
H H
+
H
H
O +
-
Ball-and-stick Model hydrogen
bond
Space-filling Model
O
H H
+ +
35
Temperature and Water
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800
Gas
600
Calories of Heat Energy / g
540
calories
400
200
Liquid
80
Solid calories
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Temperature (°C)
a. Calories lost when 1 g of liquid water freezes and calories required when b. Bodies of organisms cool when their heat is used to evaporate water.
1 g of liquid water evaporates.
b: © Grant Taylor/Stone/Getty Images
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Properties of Water
• Water has a high heat of vaporization.
Hydrogen bonds must be broken to evaporate water.
Bodies of organisms cool when their heat is used to
evaporate water.
• Water is a good solvent.
Water is a good solvent because of its polarity.
Polar substances dissolve readily in water.
Hydrophilic molecules dissolve in water.
Hydrophobic molecules do not dissolve in water.
37
Water as a Solvent
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O
H H H H
O
An ionic salt
dissolves in water.
Na+ Cl–
H H H H
O O
O H H O
H H
38
Properties of Water
• Water molecules are cohesive and adhesive.
Cohesion is the ability of water molecules to cling to
each other due to hydrogen bonding.
• Water flows freely
• Surface tension
Adhesion is the ability of water molecules to cling to
other polar surfaces.
• Adhesion is due to water’s polarity.
• Capillary action
39
Water as a Transport Medium
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Water evaporates,
pulling the water
column from the
roots to the leaves.
H2O
Water molecules
cling together and
adhere to sides of
vessels in stems.
H2O
Water enters a
plant at root cells.
40
Properties of Water
41
Density of Water at Various
Temperatures
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ice lattice
0.9
0 4 100
Temperature (ºC)
42
A Pond in Winter
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ice layer
Protists provide
food for fish.
Freshwater
fish take
oxygen
from water.
43
2.4 Acids and Bases
• pH is a measure of hydrogen ion concentration
in a solution.
• When water ionizes or dissociates, it releases
an equal number of hydrogen (H+) ions and
hydroxide (OH-) ions.
• Acids are substances that dissociate in water,
releasing hydrogen ions.
• Bases are substances that either take up
hydrogen ions (H+) or release hydroxide ions
(OH−).
44
The pH Scale
• The pH scale is used to indicate the acidity or
basicity (alkalinity) of a solution.
Values range from 0-14
• 0 to <7 = Acidic
• 7 = Neutral
• >7 to 14 = Basic (or alkaline)
Logarithmic scale
• Each unit change in pH represents a 10-fold
change in H+ concentration
• pH of 4 is 10X as acidic as pH of 5
• pH of 10 is 100X more basic than pH of 8
45
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
water
pure water, tears
tes, sea
nor
root
egg whi od
bre
ma
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a n d a,
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3 11 i
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stomach 1 13 cleaner
acid H+ OH–
0 Acidic 14
Basic sodium
ric
hydrochlo hydroxid
e
acid (HCl) (NaOH) 46
Buffers and pH
• A buffer is a chemical or a combination of
chemicals that keeps pH within normal limits.
• Health of organisms requires maintaining the pH
of body fluids within narrow limits.
Human blood is normally pH 7.4 (slightly basic)
• If blood pH drops below 7.0, acidosis results
• If blood pH rises above 7.8, alkalosis results
• Both are life-threatening situations.
47