SURVEY OF

AFRO-ASIAN
LITERATURE
PART 1: CONTENT UPDATE
• A. INDIA
• 1. Literary Periods. The Indus Valley civilization
flourished in northern India between 2500 and 1500
B.C. The Aryans, a group of nomadic warriors and
herders, were the earliest known migrants into India.
They brought with them a well-developed language
and literature and a set of religious beliefs.
• a.) Vedic Period (1500 B.C. – 500 B.C.) This period is
named for the Vedas, a set of hymns that formed the
cornerstone of Aryan culture.
• • The Rigveda which has come to mean “hymns of supreme
sacred knowledge,” is the foremost collection or Samhita
made up of 1,028 hymns. The oldest of the Vedas, it contains
strong, energetic, non-speculative hymns, often comparable to
the psalms in the Old Testament. The Hindus regard these
hymns as divinely inspired or ‘heard’ directly from the gods.
• b.) Epic and Buddhist Age (500 B.C. – A.D.). The period of composition
of the two great epics, Mahabharata and the Ramayana. This time was also
the growth of later Vedic literature, new Sanskrit literature, and Buddhist
literature in Pali. The Dhammapada was also probably composed during this
period. The Maurya Empire (322-467 B.C.) ruled by Ashoka promoted
Buddhism and preached goodness, nonviolence, and ‘righteousness’
although this period was known for warfare and iron-fisted rule. The Gupta
Dynasty (320-467 B.C.) was the next great political power. During this
time, Hinduism reached a full flowering and was evident in culture and the
arts.
• c.) Classical Period (A.D. – 1000 A.D). The main literary
language of northern India during period was Sanskrit, in
contrast with the Dravidian languages of southern India.
Sanskrit, which means ‘perfect speech’ is considered a sacred
language, the language spoken by the gods and goddesses. As
such, Sanskrit was seen as the only appropriate language for
the noblest literary works. Poetry and drama peaked during this
period. Beast fables such as the Panchatantra were popular and
often used by religious teachers to illustrate moral points.
• d.) Medieval and Modern Age (A.D. 1000 – present).
Persian influence on literature was considerable during this
period. Persian was the court language of the Moslem rulers.
In the 18th century India was directly under the British
Crown and remained so until its Independence in 1947.
British influence was strong and modern-day Indians are
primarily educated in English. Many have been brought into
the world of Western learning at the expense of learning
about their own culture.
• 2. Religions. Indian creativity is evident in religion
as the country is the birthplace of two important faiths:
Hinduism, the dominant religion, and Buddhism, which
ironically became extinct in India but spread
throughout the Asia.
• a.) Hinduism, literally “the belief of the people of
India,” is the predominant faith of India and of no other
nation. The Hindus are deeply absorbed with God and
the creation of the universe.
• The Purusarthas are the three ends of man: dharma – virtue,
duty, righteousness, moral law; artha – wealth; and kama –
love or pleasure. A fourth end is moksha – the renunciation
of duty, wealth and love in order to seek spiritual perfection.
It is achieved after the release from samsara, the cycle of
births and deaths.
• Life is viewed as an upward development through four stages
of effort called the four asramas: a) the student stage –
applies to the rite of initiation into the study of the Vedas;
• b) the householder stage – marries and fulfills the
duties as head of the family where he begets sons and
earns a living; c) the stage of the forest dweller –
departs from home and renounces the social world; and
d) ascetic – stops performing any of the rituals or social
duties of life in the world and devotes time for
reflection and meditation.
• Kama refers to one of the proper pursuits of man in his role
as householder, that of pleasure and love. The Kama-sutra is
a classic textbook on erotics and other forms of pleasure and
love, which is attributed to the sage Vatsyayana.
• The Hindus regard Purusha, the Universal Spirit, as the soul
and original source of the universe. As the universal soul,
Purusha is the life-giving principle in all animated beings.
• The Upanishads form a highly sophisticated commentary on
the religious thought suggested by the poetic hymns of the
Rigveda. The name implies, according to some traditions,
‘sitting at the feet of the teacher.’ The most important
philosophical doctrine is the concept of a single supreme
being, the Brahman, and knowledge is directed toward
reunion with it by the human soul, the Atman or Self. The
nature of eternal life is discussed and such themes as the
transmigration of souls and causality in creation.
• b.) Buddhism originated in India in the 6th century
B.C. This religion is based on the teachings of
Siddharta Gautama, called Buddha, or the
‘Enlightened One.’ Much of Buddha’s teaching is
focused on self-awareness and self-development in
order to attain nirvana or enlightenment.
• According to Buddhist beliefs, human beings are bound to the
wheel of life which is a continual cycle of birth, death, and
suffering. The Buddhist scriptures uphold the Four Noble Truths
and the Noble Eightfold Path. The Four Noble Truths are: 1) life
is suffering; 2) the cause of suffering is desire; 3) the removal of
desire is the removal of suffering; and 4) the Noble Eightfold
Path leads to the end of suffering. The Noble Eightfold Path
consists of: 1) right understanding; 2) right thought; 3) right
speech; 4) right action; 5) right means of livelihood; 6) right
effort; 7) right concentration; and 8) right meditation.
• The Dhammapada (Way of Truth) is an anthology of
basic Buddhist teaching in a simple aphoristic style.
One of the best known books of the Pali Buddhist
canon, it contains 423 stanzas arranged in 26
chapters. These verses are compared with the Letters
of St. Paul in the Bible or that of Christ’s Sermon on
the Mount.
• 3. Major Writers.
• a) Kalidasa a Sanskrit poet and dramatist is probably the
greatest Indian writer of all time.
• b) Rabindranath Tagore (1861 - 1941). The son of a Great
Sage, a Bengali poet and mystic who won the Nobel Prize
for Literature in 1913. Tagore is also a gifted composer and
a painter.
• c) Prem Chand pseudonym of Dhanpat Rai Srivastava (1880-1936).
Indian author of numerous novels and short stories in Hindi and Urdu
who pioneered in adapting Indian themes to Western literary styles.
He worked as a teacher before joining Mahatma Gandhi’s anticolonial
Noncooperation Movement.
• d) Kamala Markandaya
• e) R.K. Narayan
• f) Anita Desai
• g) Vir Singh
•
• B. CHINA
• 1. Historical Background. Chinese literature reflects the
political and social history of China and the impact of
powerful religions that came from within and outside the
country. Its tradition goes back thousand of years and has
often been inspired by philosophical questions about the
meaning of life, how to live ethically in society, and how to
live in spiritual harmony with the natural order of the
universe.
• a) Shang Dynasty (1600 B.C.)
• b) Chou Dynasty (1100 B.C. – 221 B.C.)
• a. The Book of Songs, (Shih Ching) first compiled in the 6th
century B.C., is the oldest collection of Chinese poetry and is
considered a model of poetic expression and moral insight.
• b. The Parables of the Ancient Philosophers illustrate the
Taoist belief and the humanism of the Chinese thought.
• c) Ch’in Dynasty
• d) Han Dynasty
• e) T’ang Dynasty
• f) Sung Dynasty
• g) Later Dynasties
• h) Traditional Chinese Government
2. Philosophy and Religion.
a) Confucianism provides the Chinese with both a moral
order and an order for the universe. Confucian ethics is
humanist. The following are Confucian tenets: 1) jen or
human heartedness are qualities or forms of behavior that
set men above the rest of the life on earth. 2) Li refers to
ritual, custom, propriety, and manner. Li is thought to be
the means by which life should be regulated.
• The Analects (Lun Yu) is one of the four Confucian
texts. The sayings range from brief statements to more
extended dialogues between Confucius and his
students. The Analects instructs on moderation in all
things through moral education, the building of a
harmonious family life, and the development of virtues
such as loyalty, obedience, and a sense of justice.
• The Book of Changes (I Ching) is one of the Five
Classics of Confucian philosophy and has been
primarily used for divination. This book is based
on the concept of change – the one constant of the
universe.
• Taoism, was expounded by Lao Tzu during the Chou
Dynasty. Taoist beliefs and influences are an important part
of classical Chinese culture. “The Tao” or “The Way” means
the natural course that the world follows.
• The Tao-Te Ching (Classic of the Way of Power) is believed
to have been written between the 8th and 3rd centuries B.C.
The basic concept of the dao is wu-wei or “non-action”
which means no unnatural action, rather than complete
passivity.
• Lao-tzu. Known as the “old philosopher”, Lao-zi
is credited as the founder of Taoism and an elder
contemporary of Confucius who was consulted
with him. He was more pessimistic than
Confucius was about what can be accomplished
in the world by human action.
• c) Buddhism was imported from India during the
Han Dynasty. Buddhist thought stresses the importance
of ridding oneself of earthly desires and of seeking
ultimate peace and enlightenment through detachment.
With its stress on living ethically and its de-emphasis
on material concerns, Buddhism appealed to both
Confucians and Taoists.
• 3. Genres in Chinese Poetry has always been
highly valued in Chinese culture and was
considered superior to prose. Chief among its
characteristics are lucidity, brevity, subtlety,
suggestiveness or understatement, and its three-
fold appeal to intellect, emotion and calligraphy.
• 4. Conventions of Chinese Theater. Chinese
drama may be traced to the song and dances of
the chi (wizards) and the wu (witches) whom the
people consulted to exercise evil spirits, to bring
rain, to insure bountiful harvest, etc.
• a) There are four principal roles: sheng, tau, ching, and chao.
• The sheng is the prerogative of the leading actor, usually a male
character, a scholar, a statesman, a warrior patriot and the like.
• The tau plays all the women’s roles.
• The ching roles usually assigned the roles of brave warriors,
bandits, crafty and evil ministers, upright judges, loyal statesmen,
at times god-like and supernatural beings.
• The chau is the clown or jester who is not necessarily a fool and
may also do serious or evil character.
• b) Unlike Greek plays, classical Chinese plays do not
follow the unities of time, place, and action.
• c) Chinese drama conveys an ethical lesson in the guise
of art in order to impress a moral truth or a Confucian
tenet.
• d) There are two types of speeches – the dialogue,
usually in prose, and monologues.
• e) Chinese plays are long – six or seven hours if
performed completely.
• f) Music is an integral part of the classical drama. It has
recitatives, arias, and musical accompaniment.
• g) The poetic dialogue, hsieh tzu (wedge), is placed at the
beginning or in between acts and is an integral part of the play.
• h) Dramatic conventions that serve to identify the nature and
function of each character.
• i) Action reflects highly stylized movements. Hand
movements may indicate embarrassment or hopelessness or
anguish or anger.
• 5. Major Chinese Writers
• Chuang Tzu
• Lieh Tzu
• Lui An
• Ssu-ma Ch’ien
• The T’ang Poets:
Li Po
Tu Fu
Wang Wei
Po Chu-I
Li Ch’ing-chao
Chou-Shu-jen
• C. JAPAN
• 1. Historical Background. Early Japan borrowed much from
Chinese culture but evolved its own character over time. Early
Japan’s political structure was based on clan, or family. Each clan
developed a hierarchy of classes with aristocrats, warriors, and
priests at the top and peasants and workers at the bottom. During
the 4th century A. D. the Yamato grew to be most powerful and
imposed the Chinese imperial system on Japan creating an
emperor, an imperial bureaucracy, and a grand capital city.
• a) The Heian Age was the period of peace and prosperity, of
aesthetic refinement and artificial manners.
• b) The Feudal Era was dominated by the samurai class which
included the militaristic lords, the daimyo and the band of
warriors, the samurai who adhered to a strict code of conduct the
emphasized bravery, loyalty, and honor.
• c) The Tokugawa Shogonate in the late 1500s crush the
warring feudal lords and controlled all of Japan from a new
capital at Edo, now Tokyo.
• 2. Religious Traditions. Two major faiths were essential
elements in the cultural foundations of Japanese society.
• a) Shintoism or ‘the way of the gods,’ is the ancient religion
that reveres in dwelling divine spirits called kami, found in
natural places and objects.
• b) Zen Buddhism emphasized the importance of meditation,
concentration, and self-discipline as the way to enlightenment.
• 3. Socio-political concepts. Japan has integrated Confucian
ethics and Buddhist morality which India implanted in China.
The concepts of giri and on explain why the average Japanese is
patriotic, sometimes ultra-nationalistic, law-abiding.
• a) Giri connotes duty, justice, honor, face, decency,
respectability, courtesy, charity, humanity, love, gratitude, claim.
• b) On suggests a sense of obligation or indebtedness which
propels a Japanese to act, as it binds the person perpetually to
other individuals to the group, to parents, teachers, superiors,
and the emperor.
• 4. Poetry is one of the oldest and most popular means of expression
and communication in the Japanese culture.
• a) The Manyoshu or Book of Ten Thousand Leaves is an anthology by
poets from a wide range of social classes, including the peasantry, the
clergy, and the ruling class.
• b) There are different poems according to set forms or structures:
• • Choka are poems that consist of alternate lines of five and seven
syllables with an additional seven-syllable line at the end. There is no
limit to the number of lines which end with envoys, or pithy summations.
These envoys consist of 5-7-5-7-7 syllables that elaborate on or
summarize the theme or central idea of the main poem.
• Tanka is the most prevalent verse form in traditional Japanese
literature. It consists of five lines of 5-7-5-7-7 syllables
including at least one caesura, or pause. Used as a means of
communication in ancient Japanese society, the tanka often tell
a brief story or express a single thought or insight and the
common subjects are love and nature.
• • Renga is a chain of interlocking tanka. Each tanka within a
renga was divided into verses of 17 and 14 syllables composed
by different poets as it was fashionable for groups of poets to
work together during the age of Japanese feudalism.
• Hokku was the opening verse of a renga which
developed into a distinct literary form known as the
haiku. The haiku consists of 3 lines of 5-7 syllable
characterized by precision, simplicity, and
suggestiveness. Almost all haiku include a kigo or
seasonal words such as snow or cherry blossoms
that indicates the time of year being described.
• 5. Prose appeared in the early part of the 8th century focusing
on Japanese history. During the Heian Age, the members of the
Imperial court, having few administrative or political duties, kept
lengthy diaries and experimented with writing fiction.
• The Tale of Genji by Lady Murasaki Shikibu
• The Tale of Haike written by an anonymous author during 13th
century
• Essays in Idleness by Yoshida Kenko
• In the Grove by Ryunusuke Akutagawa
• 6. Drama
• a) No plays emerged during the 14th century as the earliest form of
Japanese drama. The dramas reflect many Shinto and Buddhist beliefs,
along with a number of dominant Japanese artistic preferences.
• b) Kabuki involves lively, melodramatic acting and is staged using
elaborate and colorful costumes and sets. It is performed with the
accompaniment of an orchestra and generally focus on the lives of
common people rather than aristocrats.
• c) Jorori (now called Bunraku) is staged using puppets and was a great
influence on the development of the Kabuki.
• d) Kyogen is a farce traditionally performed between the no tragedies.
• 7. Novels and Short Stories
• Snow Country by Kawabata
• The House of Sleeping Beauties by Kawabata
• The Makioka Sisters by Tanizaki
• The Sea of Fertility by Mishima
• The Setting Sun by Ozamu
• In the Grove by Akutagawa
• The Wild Geese by Oagi
• The Buddha Tree by Fumio
• 8. Major Writers
• Seami Motokiyo
• The Haiku Poets
• -Matsuo Basho
• -Yosa Buson
• -Kobayashi Issa
• Yasunari Kawabata
• Junichiro Tanizaki
• Yukio Mishima
• Dazai Ozamu
• Ryunosuke Akutagawa
• Oe Kenzaburo
• D. AFRICA
• 1. The Rise of Africa’s Great Civilization. Between 751
and 664 B.C. the kingdom of Kush at the southern end of the
Nile River gained strength and prominence succeeding the
New Kingdom of Egyptian civilization. Smaller civilizations
around the edges of the Sahara also existed among them the
Fasa of the northern Sudan, whose deeds are recalled by the
Soninka oral epic, The Daust.
• Aksum (3rd century A.D.)
• Africa’s Golden Age (between A.D. 300 and A.D.
1600)
• Foreign influences came in the 4th century.
• Mid-1900s
• 2. Literary Forms
• a) Orature
• b) Griots
• c) Features of African oral literature
• repetition and parallel structure
• repeat-and-vary technique
• tonal assonance
• call-and-response format
• d) Lyric Poems
• e) Hymns of Praise Songs offered to the sun god Aten
• f) African Proverbs
• g) Dilemma or Enigma Tale
• h) Ashanti Tale
• i) Folk Talesj) Origin stories
• k) Trickster Tale
• l) Moral Stories
m) Humorous Stories
n) Epics of vanished heroes
• The Dausi from the Soninke
• Monzon and the King of Kore from the Bambara of
western Africa
• The epic of Askia the Great
• The epic of the Zulu Empire of southern Africa
• Sundiata
3. Negritude, which means literally ‘blackness,’ is the
literary movement of the 1930s – 1950s that began among
French-speaking African and Caribbean writers living in
Paris as a protest against French colonial rule and the
policy of assimilation. The basic ideas behind Negritude
include:
• Africans must look to their own cultural heritage to
determine the values and traditions that are most useful in
the modern world.
• Committed writers should use African subject
matter and poetic traditions and should excite a
desire for political freedom.
• • Negritude itself encompasses the whole of African
cultural, economic, social, and political values.
• • The value and dignity of African traditions and
peoples must be asserted.
• 4. African Poetry is more eloquent in its
expression of Negritude since it is the poets who first
articulated their thoughts and feelings about the
inhumanity suffered by their own people.
• Paris in the Snow
• Totem by Leopold Senghor
• Letters to Martha by Dennis Brutus
• Train Journey by Dennis Brutus
• Telephone Conversation by Wole Soyinka
• Africa by David Diop
• Song of Lawino by Okot P’Bitek
5. Novels
• The Houseboy by Ferdinand Oyono
• Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe
• No Longer at Ease by Chinua Achebe
• The Poor Christ of Bombay by Mongo Beti
• The River Between by James Ngugi
• Heirs to the Past by Driss Chraili
• A Few Days and Few Nights by Mbella Sonne
Dipoko
• The Interpreters by Wole Soyinka
• 6. Major Writers
• Leopold Sedar Senghor
• Okot P’Bitek
• Wole Soyinka
• Chinua Achebe
• Nadine Gordimer
• Bessie Head
• Barbara Kimenye
• Ousmane Sembene