UNIT 6

TIMBER AND TIMBER PRODUCTS

 INTRODUCTION
• Timber is a product of wood from felled trees suitable for
construction purposes.
• Timber is one of the oldest and natural civil engineering
construction materials.
• According to various stages at which timber is found, it is
named as:
• Standing Timber: Timber available in a living tree.
• Green Timber: Freshly felled tree which has not lost
much of its moisture.
• Rough Timber: Timber obtained after felling a tree.
 INTRODUCTION
• According to various stages at which timber is found, it is
named as:
• Converted Timber: Timber that is sawn and cut into
required sizes for commercial use.
• Structural Timber: Timber used in framing and load-
bearing structure.
 ADVANTAGES OF USES OF TIMBER
• Availability: easily and locally available in most parts of our
country as well the world and can be grown with minimum
input.
• Workability: shape and size of timber can be easily altered
and different pieces of wood can be joined together by
simple joints with simple tools.
• Aesthetic Value: wood is a decorative material. Each tree
has its own colour, it is possible to find different materials
according to colour and design preference.
 ADVANTAGES OF USES OF TIMBER
• Comfort: Timber has a high insulating value and helps to
maintain better thermal comfort than other materials.
• Salvage Value: Timber has high salvage value and hence
is not wasted. Wood is easy to repair and maintain.
• Shock Absorbent: Timber has a good absorbent of shock
and vibration and hence widely used as flooring in
auditorium halls, stages, earthquake resistant structures,
etc.
 DISADVANTAGES OF USES OF TIMBER
• Vulnerable to Biotic Attacks: Timber is vulnerable to biotic
forces like termites, woodworm or wood ants.
• Prone to Abiotic Forces: Abiotic forces of nature like the
Sun, fire, water, etc. can have adverse effects on timber.
• Shrinking and Swelling of Wood: Wood has a natural
ability to absorb water i.e. hygroscopic material.
STRUCTURE OF TREE
STRUCTURE OF TREE
STRUCTURE OF TREE
 STRUCTURE OF TREE
• Bark: The outermost skin of an exogenous tree. It protects
inner portions of the tree from heat, rain, wind, and any
external injuries.
• Cambium Layer: It is the layer between the bark and the
outermost annular ring. It is basically in the process of
forming into annular rings of wood fiber.
• Annular Rings: These consists of cellular tissues and
woody fibers arranged in distinct concentric circle round
the pith. Generally formed in every year. So number of
annular rings indicate the age of tree.
 STRUCTURE OF TREE
• Pith: It is the innermost central portion consisting of
cellular tissues. It is first formed portion of the stem and
hence the oldest.
• Heart Wood: The inner annular area surrounding the pith.
It is compact, strong, durable and darker in colour. It is the
one used for engineering works.
• Sap Wood: The portion between the cambium layer and
the heartwood. It is saturated with sap which becomes the
source for fungal attack, insect attack, and moisture
content.
 STRUCTURE OF TREE
• Medullary Rays: These are thin horizontal veins radiating
from the pith towards the bark. They carry sap from
outside to the inner part of the tree and they keep the
annual rings tightly gripped together.
 CLASSIFICATION OF TREES
• According to their manner of growth, the tree can be
divided into two main categories:
• Endogenous Tree
• Exogenous Tree
 ENDOGENOUS TREES
• They grow chiefly longitudinally with minimum growth in
the outward direction.
• Due to the hollowness of the core and predominant
longitudinal growth, the stems are too flexible, light, and
tough.
• They are not suitable for engineering work.
• They are used for temporary construction.
• Eg. Bamboo, palm, cane, etc.
 EXOGENOUS TREES
• They grow outward with the addition of a ring every year
known as the annual ring.
• Each annual ring represents layer of wood, deposited
every year.
• Due to the solid nature of the tree, they are used as
structural timber mostly used for engineering purposes.
• Eg. Deodar, sal, shishau, pine, etc.
 EXOGENOUS TREES
• It is further divided into two types:
• Conifers or Evergreen Trees:
• Remain evergreen, bear fruits in cone form and have needle-
pointed leaves.
• Yield softwood which is generally light coloured, resinous,
light weight, and weak.
• Show distinct annual rings.
• Eg. Deodar, pine, cedar, etc.
 EXOGENOUS TREES
• Deciduous Trees:
• Shed their leaves in autumn and new leaves appear in
spring.
• Yield hardwoods which are generally closed grain,
strong, heavy, dark coloured, durable and non-resinous.
• Do not show distinct annual rings.
• Timber used for engineering purposes is mostly derived
from deciduous trees.
• Eg. Teak, sal, shishau, oak, sheesham, etc.
 DEFECTS IN TIMBER
• Defects that develop during growth of tree
• Shake
• A partial or complete separation between adjoining layers of
wood due to various factors.
• Depending upon their shapes and positions, shakes are
classified as:
• Star Shake
• Heart Shake
• Ring Shake
STAR SHAKE
HEART SHAKE
RING SHAKE
RADIAL SHAKE
RIND GALLS
TWISTED FIBERS
KNOTS
FOXINESS
DRUXINESS
 DEFECTS IN TIMBER
• Defects that develop after felling of tree
• Bow:
• Appears in the form of a curve along the face of a timber
board that usually runs from end to end.
• Generally caused by shrinkage.
• Cup
• Appears in the form of a curve along the transverse direction.
• Check
• Crack developing longitudinally in the logs
• Check does not extend from one end to the other.
DEFECTS IN TIMBER
CHECK IN TIMBER
DEFECTS IN TIMBER
 DEFECTS IN TIMBER
• Defects that develop after felling of tree
• Case Hardening:
• Defect in which timber is subjected to stresses and strains due to
unequal shrinkage of internal and external surfaces.
• Honey Combing
• Various radial and circular splits develop in the interior portion of the
timber during drying process, timber thus assumes honey-combed
texture.
• Results in very weak structure of timber.
 DEFECTS IN TIMBER
• Defects that develop after felling of tree
• Twist or Warp:
• Spiral distortion where the ends twists in opposite directions.
• Wane:
• Presence of original rounded surface on the prepared piece of timber.
• Split:
• When check extends from one end to another end.
• Diagonal Grains
• Caused by improper sawing
• Appears as diagonal marks on a straight grained surface of timber
WANE IN TIMBER
DIAGONAL GRAINS IN TIMBER
 SEASONING OF TIMBER
• Trees felled recently will contain large amounts of sap and moisture.
• Seasoning is the process of removing all the sap and moisture
content under controlled conditions to avoid any splitting and
distortion in the wood.
• It can also be defined as the process of drying the wood to a
moisture content approximately equal to the average humidity of the
surroundings, where it is to be permanently fixed.
• Very rapid seasoning after removal of bark should be avoided since it
causes case hardening and thus increases resistance to penetration
of preservatives.
 OBJECTIVES OF SEASONING
• As most causes of decay and other problems are more or less
related to moisture, the main objective is to remove moisture
thereby increasing the resisting power of timber.
• To impart hardness, stiffness and strength, which improve the
adoptability of timber for many building purposes.
• To improve the resisting power of timber against electrical power
and attack by fungi and insects.
• To make the timber easily workable.
• To totally remove the possibility of shrinking, warping and splitting.
 OBJECTIVES OF SEASONING
• To maintain the size and shape of the components of the timber
structure of articles that are expected to be unchanged during the
life span.
• To make timber suitable for treating with paints, polishes,
preservatives, etc.
• To make the timber suitable for effectively joining with the use of
glues.
• To reduce the weight of the timber for easy handling and
transportation to other places.
• To give high order of durability for more years after construction.
 METHODS OF SEASONING
• Natural Seasoning
• Air Seasoning
• Water Seasoning
• Artificial Seasoning
• Kiln Seasoning
• Chemical Seasoning
• Electrical Seasoning
 AIR SEASONING
• It is also known as air drying.
• In this method timbers intended for seasoning are stacked in a dry
place under cover about 30 cm above the floor level.
• The longitudinal and cross pieces are arranged one upon the other
leaving space for free circulation of air.
• It is better to provide a foundation to keep the timber clean off the
ground.
• Wood seasoned by such a process can be used for carpentry work
after two years.
AIR SEASONING
AIR SEASONING
 WATER SEASONING
• This method of seasoning timber is to completely immerse the logs
of wood in water soon after cutting.
• This is better done in a running stream of water with the longer
ends of the logs being kept pointing upstream.
• By this arrangement the sap, sugar, gum, etc. are leached out of
the logs and in turn replaced by water.
• After adequate soaking the logs are dried in an open place.
• Although it is a quick process, it reduces the durability of the timber.
 ARTIFICIAL SEASONING
• Artificial seasoning may be done by kiln seasoning, chemical
seasoning and electrical seasoning.
• By artificial seasoning the moisture content can be brought under
control from 4% to 12%.
• This is a quick process.
 KILN SEASONING
• In this system, complete control of temperature and humidity is
maintained with proper air circulation and ventilation system.
• The timber is kept inside an airtight chamber.
• As a first step fully saturated air at 35–38°C is circulated.
• Then the humidity is reduced slowly followed by an increase of
temperature till the moisture in the timber is reduced to the degree
of moisture required.
• Then the kiln is slowly cooled.
 KILN SEASONING
• This process takes about a fortnight during which the timber is kept
on a trolley.
• The quality of wood obtained by this method is inferior to those
seasoned by natural methods.
KILN SEASONING
 CHEMICAL SEASONING
• This method of seasoning is also known as salt seasoning.
• In this method the timber is immersed in salt solution.
• After a specific period it is taken out and seasoned in the ordinary
way.
• In this method of seasoning the interior surface of the timber dries
before the exterior dries out.
• Here the chances of formation of external cracks are reduced.
 ELECTRICAL SEASONING
• This method is based on the principle that heat is produced when
poor conductors are placed in the field of high frequency.
• Here, an induction coil producing field of high frequency is set up.
• The timber is made to pass through the coil.
• Due to electric induction the moisture is removed instantly and the
wood is dried quickly.
• By this process the moisture gets evaporated uniformly and results
in superior quality of timber.
• Because of high cost this method is not generally recommended.
 PREVENTION OF DRYING OF LOGS
• After the tree has been felled, its bark is removed and it is roughly
squared and sawn as quickly as possible to avoid cracking of
timber and to quicken seasoning.
• There is possibility of faster evaporation of moisture from end of
timber pieces and if not checked then it is likely to result in cracking
and splitting of ends.
• To avoid this, end of logs or planks are painted with sealing liquid,
tar or asphalt, paraffin wax, mixture of molasses and lime or resin
and shading them with plywood.
 PREVENTION OF DRYING OF LOGS
• If the logs cannot be converted into planks immediately after felling
then rapid drying of logs should be minimized by storing them
completely submerged under water.
• If the water is stagnant then the same should be changed at least
once fortnight so as to remove the fermenting material.
 PRESERVATION OF TIMBER
• The art of treating the timber with some chemical so as to protect it
and thus increase its life is known as the preservation of timber.
• The main objectives of this are to protect the timber structure from
the attack of destroying agencies like fungi, insects, moisture,
temperature, etc. and to lengthen the life of the timber structure.
 METHOD OF PRESERVATION OF TIMBER
• Charring
• In this method, the ends of the timber are burnt to about 1.5 cm and
then quenched in water.
• This charred end act as a protective coat.
• This is particularly done to prevent dry rot and attacks by insects.
• Tarring
• This is applying a coat of tar or tar mixed with pitch.
• It is generally applied to rough types of works such as ends of door
and window frames that are to be fixed to the walls, timber fences,
etc.
 METHOD OF PRESERVATION OF TIMBER
• Creosoting
• Creosote oil is one which has wood preservative oil in it.
• The timber to be treated is placed in cylinders and closed tightly.
• Creosote oil under a pressure of 9 bars and at a temperature of 50°C
is pumped into the cylinder until the desired absorption is reached.
• By this treatment the timber is preserved against rot and attack by
white ants.
 METHOD OF PRESERVATION OF TIMBER
• Painting
• After cleaning thoroughly, 2 or 3 coats of paint are applied to protect
the timber from moisture and give it a good appearance.
• Paint should be applied on timber from time to time.
• Fire-proofing
• A coating of any non-combustible material protects the surface of the
wood from direct contact with flying embers and also from radiant
heat.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD TIMBER
• Strength
• The timber should be strong enough to effectively act as structural
members.
• Further, it should be in a position to sustain loads applied gradually or
suddenly to it.
• Hardness
• The timber should be hard so that it is in a position to offer resistance
when it is being penetrated by another body.
• As such hardness is imparted to the wood by chemicals present in
the heartwood and the density of wood.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD TIMBER
• Fire-resistant
• As timber is a bad conductor of heat, it should be dense enough so
that it resists fire.
• A good timber should not contain resins and other inflammable oils
since they accelerate the action of fire.
• Structure
• It should possess a uniform structure.
• This is ensured when there is firm adhesion of fibers and compact
medullary rays.
• Further, the annual rings should be regular and closely located.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD TIMBER
• Elasticity
• This is the property of a material which returns to its original shape when
the load causing the deformation is removed.
• Timber should possess this property, as it is essential when timber is
used for bows, carriage shafts, etc.
• Durability
• Another important quality required for timber is it should to be durable.
• It should have a long life.
• It should be capable of resisting the actions of fungi, insects, chemicals,
physical agencies and mechanical agencies during its lifespan.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD TIMBER
• Defects
• It should be free from defects such as shakes, flaws, dead knots or
blemishes of any kind.
• Weight
• Quality timber should be of heavy weight and uniform along the
length under consideration.
• Fibers
• Good timber should possess straight and close fibres, which signify
uniformity in the timber.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD TIMBER
• Workability
• The timber should be easily workable, i.e., it should not clog the teeth
of the saw.
• It should be capable of being easily planed.
• A good timber when planed shows a firm and bright appearance with
a silky luster.
• Colour
• The colour of quality timber should be uniform and of dark colour.
• Light-coloured wood usually indicates timber of low strength.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD TIMBER
• Sound
• Good timber should produce a clear ringing sound when struck.
• Decayed timber produces a dull and heavy sound.
 SPECIAL TIMBER PRODUCTS
• Plywood
• Plywoods are boards which are prepared from thin layers of wood or
veneers.
• Veneers are thin sheets of slices of wood of superior quality.
• The thickness of veneers varies from 0.4 to 6 mm.
• To make plywood, round logs of 1.5–2.5 m lengths are first cut.
• They are then steamed and veneers are cut from these logs with a
wide sharp knife.
• About three or more veneers in multiples of odd numbers are glued
one over the other.
 SPECIAL TIMBER PRODUCTS
• Plywood
• Care is taken to place the direction of the grains in one sheet at right
angles to the other.
• This arrangement is needed to provide adequate longitudinal and
transverse strengths.
• The arranged veneers with adhesives in between are pressed under
a pressure of 0.7–1.40 N/mm2 under hot or cold conditions.
PLYWOOD
 SPECIAL TIMBER PRODUCTS
• Hard Board
• It is made out of wood waste obtained from saw mills that is
compressed to make sheets usually of 3-mm thickness.
• Its top surface is smooth and hard and the rear side is rough with
patterns or cross lines.
• They are used for wall panels, false ceilings, tabletop,etc
 SPECIAL TIMBER PRODUCTS
• Fiber Board
• In this case, wood chips are steamed to separate the fibers from
each other.
• These fibers are blended with resin and wax.
• These are turned into sheets by pressing under controlled heat and
pressure.
• The boards are available in thicknesses of 25–32 mm and as sheets
of 2.44 m × 1.22 m size.
• They are suitable for flush doors, cabinets, etc.
 SPECIAL TIMBER PRODUCTS
• Block Board
• Block board is also known as batten-board or solid-core board.
• Batten board consists of a core solid block of thin wood sawn from
natural wood.
• The central block is then glued between two or more outer veneers
on either side.
• Thicknesses are from about 19 mm upwards.
• They are suitable for door panels, partitions, table tops, etc.
 SPECIAL TIMBER PRODUCTS
• Lamin Board
• Lamin board is similar to that of batten board with the difference
being the core is made up of multiple veneers.
• The thickness of veneers is about 6 mm, and the total thickness of
the board is about 50 mm.
SPECIAL TIMBER PRODUCTS
SPECIAL TIMBER PRODUCTS
SPECIAL TIMBER PRODUCTS