UNIT 3

BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
 INTRODUCTION
• Man requires different types of buildings for his activities:
• houses, bungalows and flats for his living;
• hospitals and health centers for his health;
• schools, colleges and universities for his education;
• banks, shops, offices, buildings and factories for doing work;
• railway buildings, bus stations and air terminals for transportation;
• clubs, theatres and cinema houses for recreation;
• temples, mosques, churches, dharmshalas, etc., for worship.
• Each type of the above buildings has its own requirements.
 BUILDING ELEMENTS
• A building has two basic parts:
• Substructure or Foundation
• Superstructure
 SUBSTRUCTURE OR FOUNDATION
• Substructure or Foundation is the lower portion of the building,
usually located below the ground level, which transmits the loads
of the superstructure to the supporting soil.
• A foundation is therefore that part of the structure which is in direct
contact with the ground to which the loads are transmitted.
SUBSTRUCTURE OR FOUNDATION
 SUPERSTRUCTURE
• Superstructure is that part of the structure which is above ground
level, and which serves the purpose of its intended use.
• A part of the superstructure, located between the ground level and
the floor level is known as plinth.
• Plinth is therefore defined as the portion of the structure between
the surface of the surrounding ground and surface of the floor,
immediately above the ground.
• The level of the floor is usually known as the plinth level.
• The built-up covered area measured at the floor level is known as
plinth area.
 BUILDING ELEMENTS
• A building has the following elements:
• Foundations
• Masonry units: walls and columns
• Floor structures
• Door, windows and other openings
• Vertical transportation structures, such as stairs, lifts, ramps, etc
• Building finishes
 FOUNDATIONS
• The basic function of a foundation is to transmit the dead loads,
live loads and other loads to the subsoil on which it rests in such a
way that:
• settlements are within permissible limits, without causing cracks in
the superstructure
• soil does not fail in shear.
• Since it remains below the ground level, the signs of failure of
foundations are not noticeable till it has already affected the
building.
• It should therefore be designed very carefully.
FOUNDATIONS
 MASONRY UNITS
• Masonry may be defined as the construction of building units
bonded together with mortar.
• These building units, commonly known as masonry units may be
stones, bricks or precast blocks.
• The construction with stone units, bonded with mortar is known as
stone masonry.
• The construction with brick units, bonded with mortar is known as
brick masonry.
• A composite masonry may use different types of building units for
the construction.
 MASONRY UNITS: WALLS
• Walls are the most essential components of a building.
• The primary function of the wall is to enclose or divide space of the
building to make it more functional and useful.
• Walls provide privacy, afford security and give protection against
heat, cold, sun and rain.
• Walls may be either load bearing or non-load bearing.
• Load bearing walls are those which are designed to carry the
superimposed loads (transferred through roofs), in addition to their
own (self) weight.
 MASONRY UNITS: WALLS
• Non-load bearing walls carry their own load only. They generally
serve a divide walls or partition walls.
• Wall may be of several types, such as cavity walls, party walls,
partition walls, dwarf walls, retaining walls.
CAVITY WALL
RETAINING WALL
 MASONRY UNITS: COLUMNS
• A column is an isolated vertical load bearing member, the width of
which is neither less than its thickness nor more than four times its
thickness.
• In other words, the column should have a balanced cross-sectional
shape, and the width or thickness should not deviate too much
from each other.
• Column is designed to support compressive loads.
• Columns can be made of various materials, including concrete,
steel, timber, or composite materials.
EARLY COLUMNS
COLUMNS
 FLOOR STRUCTURES
• Floors are the horizontal elements which divide the building into
different levels for the purpose of creating more accommodation
within a restricted space one above the other and provide support
for the occupants, furniture and equipment of a building.
• The floor of a building immediately above the ground is known as
ground floor.
• All other floors which are above the ground floor are known as the
upper floors.
• The floors of the first storey is known as the first floor and that of
the second storey is known as the second floor, etc.
 FLOOR STRUCTURES
• In case, part of the building is constructed below the ground level,
or the building has the basement, the floor is known as basement
floor.
• Floor Area Ratio (FAR) is a zoning regulation that governs the
maximum allowable floor area of a building in relation to the size of
the plot of land on which it is located.
• Floor area ratio is the ratio of a building's total floor area to the size
of the piece of land upon which it is built.
 ROOF STRUCTURES
• A roof is the upper most part of a building.
• It is a covering provided on the top of the building with a view to keep out
rain, snow, sun and wind and to protect the building from their adverse
effects.
• A roof consists of two components:
• The roof decking
• The roof covering
• Roof decking is a structural component which supports the roof
covering.
• Roof decking may be either flat or sloping, and may be in the form of flat
slab, dome, truss, portal or shell.
 ROOF STRUCTURES
• The roof covering or roofing is provided on the roof deck to
safeguard the building against weather effects.
• These may be in the form of tiles, thatch covering, slates, flagstone
covering, and corrugated sheets of galvanized iron or asbestos
cement.
 DOOR, WINDOWS AND OTHER OPENINGS
• A door is a movable barrier provided in the opening of a wall, to
provide access to various spaces of a building.
• A door is a frame work of wood, steel, etc. secured in the wall
opening for the purpose of providing access to the users of the
building.
• Similarly, a window may be defined as an opening made in the wall
for the purpose of providing day light, vision and ventilation.
• Windows are also made of frame work of wood, steel, aluminium,
etc., provided with shutters.
 DOOR, WINDOWS AND OTHER OPENINGS
• Since doors and windows are provided in the openings in the
walls, a discontinuity is formed in the wall, in the vertical direction.
• Lintels are therefore essential.
• A lintel is a horizontal structural member provided over the doors,
windows or other openings, to span the gap, so as to support the
superimposed load carried by the wall above the opening.
• Lintels may be made of timber, stone, steel or reinforced cement
concrete (R.C.C.).
 DOOR, WINDOWS AND OTHER OPENINGS
• Sometimes, an arch may be provided to span the opening, in the
place of a lintel.
• An arch is a structure consisting of a number of small wedge-
shaped units and jointed together with mortar, which is constructed
to bridge across any opening in the wall.
• The arch may also be constructed in R.C.C.
LINTEL
LINTEL
ARCH
 VERTICAL TRANSPORTATION STRUCTURES
• These consists of stairs, ramps, ladders, lifts and escalators etc. to
afford access between various floors.
• Out of these, stairs are the most common.
• A stair may be defined as series of steps suitably arranged for the
purpose of connecting different floors of a building.
• Stairs may be constructed of different materials such as timber,
stone, reinforced concrete or steel.
 BUILDING FINISHES
• Building finishes are used to give protective covering to various
building components, and at the same time, they provide
decorative effects.
• Building finishes consists of the following items:
• Plastering
• Pointing
• Painting
• Varnishing and Polishing
• White Washing
• Colour Washing or Colouring
 BUILDING FINISHES
• Plastering consists of providing a thin covering of plastic materials
such as cement mortar, lime mortar etc. on walls, columns and
other surfaces.
• Pointing is the process of finishing of mortar joints in brick or stone
masonry.
• Painting, varnishing and polishing is normally done on doors,
windows and other timber and steel components.
• White washing, distempering and colour washing, etc. are done on
plastered surfaces, to safeguard them against weathering effects
and to improve the appearance.
 MASONRY
• Masonry may be defined as the construction of building units
bonded together with mortar.
• The building units (commonly known as masonry units) may be
stones, bricks or precast blocks of concrete.
• When stones are used as the building units or building blocks, we
have stone masonry.
• Similarly, in brick masonry, bricks are used as the building units.
• A composite masonry is a construction in more than one type of
building units.
 MASONRY
• Masonry is normally used for the construction of foundations, walls,
columns and other similar structural components of buildings.
• The basic advantage of masonry construction lies in the fact that in
load-bearing structures, it performs a variety of functions such as:
• supporting loads
• subdividing space
• providing thermal and acoustic insulation
• affording fire and weather protection, etc.
 TERMS USED IN MASONRY
• Course:
• A course is a horizontal layer of masonry unit.
• Thus, in stone masonry, the thickness of a course will be equal to the
height of the stones plus thickness of one mortar joint.
• Similarly, in brick masonry, the thickness of a course will be equal to
the thickness of modular brick plus thickness of one mortar joint.
• Header:
• A header is a full stone unit or brick which is so laid that its length is
perpendicular to the face of the wall.
 TERMS USED IN MASONRY
• Stretcher:
• A stretcher is a full stone unit or brick which is so laid that its length is
along or parallel to the face of the wall.
• Header Course:
• A course of brick work showing only headers on the exposed face of the
wall is known as header course or heading course.
• In the case of stone masonry header is sometimes known as through
stone.
• Stretcher Course:
• A course of brick work showing only the stretchers on the exposed face
of the wall is known as the stretcher course or stretching course.
 TERMS USED IN MASONRY
• Quoins:
• The exterior angle or corner of a wall is known as quoin.
• The stones or bricks forming the quoins are known as stone quoins
or quoin bricks.
• If the quoin is laid in such a manner that its width is parallel to the
face of the wall, it is known as quoin header.
• If, however, the length of the quoin is laid parallel to the face of the
wall, it is known as quoin stretcher.
 TERMS USED IN MASONRY
• Jambs:
• Jambs are the vertical sides of a finished opening for the door,
window or fire place etc.
TERMS USED IN MASONRY
TERMS USED IN MASONRY
TERMS USED IN MASONRY
 CLASSIFICATION OF STONE MASONRY
• Depending upon the arrangement of stones in the construction,
degree of refinement used in shaping the stone and finishing
adopted, stone masonry can be classified as follows:
• Rubble Masonry
• Ashlar Masonry
 RUBBLE MASONRY
• In the rubble masonry, the blocks of stone that are used are either
undressed or comparatively roughly dressed.
• The masonry has wide joints, since stones of irregular sizes are used.
• Rubble masonry may be out of the following types:
• Random Rubble
• Uncoursed
• Coursed
 UNCOURSED RUBBLE
• This is the roughest and cheapest form of stone walling.
• In this type of masonry, the stones used are of widely different
sizes.
• Since the stones are not of uniform size and shapes, greater care
and ingenuity have to be exercised in arranging them in such a
way that they adequately distribute the pressure over the maximum
area and at the same time long continuous vertical joints are
avoided.
• Sound bond should be available both transversely as well as
longitudinally.
 UNCOURSED RUBBLE MASONRY
• Transverse bond is obtained by the liberal use of headers.
• Larger stones are selected for quoins and jambs to give increased
strength and better appearance.
UNCOURSED RUBBLE MASONRY
 COURSED RUBBLE MASONRY
• The method of construction is the same as above except that the work
is roughly levelled up to form courses varying from 30 to 45 cm thick.
• All the courses are not of the same height.
• For the construction of this type of masonry, quoins are built first and
line (string) is stretched between the tops of quoins.
• The intervening walling is then brought up to this level by using
different size of stones.
• Figure shows the procedure, in which the stone have been numbered
in the order in which they are placed.
• This form of masonry is better than uncoursed random rubble masonry.
COURSED RUBBLE MASONRY
 ASHLAR MASONRY
• Ashlar masonry consists of blocks of accurately dressed stone with
extremely fine bed and end joints.
• The blocks may be either square and rectangular shaped.
• The height of stone varies from 25 to 30 cm.
• The height of blocks in each course is kept equal but it is not
necessary to keep all the courses of the same height.
ASHLAR MASONRY
 MORTAR
• Mortar is a homogeneous mixture, produced by uniform mixing of a
binder with inert material (such as sand) and water to make a
paste of required consistency and is used to bind a masonry unit.
• The following ingredients are used for mortar making:
• Materials which cause adhesion when dried from wet plastic state
such as clay, mud, etc.
• Cementations ingredients such as cement, lime or combination of
these two.
 BRICK MASONRY
• Brick masonry is made of brick units bonded together with mortar.
• Two essential components of brick masonry are therefore:
• Bricks
• Mortar
• Mud mortar is used only for low-rise buildings which carry light
loads.
• Cement mortars are used for high-rise buildings, where strength is
of prime importance.
• Lime mortar and lime-surkhi mortars are used for all types of
construction.
 BRICK MASONRY
• Bricks are manufactured by moulding clay in rectangular blocks of
uniform predetermined size, drying them and then burning them in
a kiln.
• The strength of brick masonry chiefly depends upon:
• quality of bricks,
• quality of mortar,
• method of bonding.
• Unbonded wall, even constructed with good quality bricks and good
quality mortar has little strength and stability.
 BRICK MASONRY
• Brick masonry is sometimes preferred over other types of masonry
due to the following reasons:
• All the bricks are of uniform size and shape, and hence they can be
laid in any definite pattern.
• Brick units are light in weight and small in size. Hence these can be
easily handled by bricklayers by hand.
• Bricks do not need any dressing.
• The art of brick laying can be understood very easily, and even
unskilled masons can do the brick masonry. Stone masonry
construction requires highly skilled masons.
 BRICK MASONRY
• Brick masonry is sometimes preferred over other types of masonry
due to the following reasons:
• Bricks are easily available at all sites, unlike stones which are
available only at quarry sites. Due to this, they do not require
transportation from long distances.
• Ornamental work can be easily done with bricks.
• Light partition walls and filler walls can be easily constructed in brick
masonry.
 BONDS IN BRICK WORK
• Bond is the interlacement of bricks, formed when they lay (or
project beyond) those immediately below or above them.
• It is the method of arranging the bricks in courses so that individual
units are tied together and the vertical joints of the successive
courses do not lie in same vertical line.
• Bond of various types are distinguished by their elevation or face
appearance.
 TYPES OF BONDS
• Stretcher Bond
• Stretcher bond or stretching bond is the one in which all the bricks
are laid as stretchers on the faces of walls.
• The length of the bricks are thus along the direction of the wall.
• This pattern is used only for those walls which have thickness of half
brick (i.e., 11.5 cm), such as those used as partition walls, sleeper
walls, division walls or chimney stacks.
• The bond is not possible if the thickness of the wall is more.
TYPES OF BONDS
 TYPES OF BONDS
• English Bond
• This is the most commonly used bond, for all wall thicknesses.
• This bond is considered to be the strongest.
• The bond consists of alternate courses of headers and stretchers.
• In this bond, the vertical joints of the header courses come over each
other; similarly, the vertical joints of the stretcher courses also come
over each other.
• In order to break the vertical joints in the successive courses, it is
essential to place queen closer after the first header (quoin header)
in each heading course.
 TYPES OF BONDS
• English Bond
• Also, only headers are used for the hearting of thicker walls.
TYPES OF BONDS
 TYPES OF BONDS
• Flemish Bond
• In this type of bond, each course is comprised of alternate headers
and stretchers.
• Every alternate course starts with a header at the corner (i.e., quoin
header).
• Queen closers are placed next to the quoin header in alternate
courses to develop the face lap.
• Every header is centrally supported over the stretcher below it.
• Flemish bonds are of two types:
• Double Flemish bond
• Single Flemish bond.
 TYPES OF BONDS
• Double Flemish Bond
• In the double Flemish bond, each course presents the same
appearance both in the front face and in the back face.
• Alternate headers and stretcher are laid in each course.
• Because of this, double Flemish bond presents better appearance
than English bond.
• Quoin closers are used next to quoin headers in every alternate
course.
TYPES OF BONDS
 TYPES OF BONDS
• Single Flemish Bond
• Single Flemish bond is comprised of double Flemish bond facing and
English bond backing and hearting in each course.
• This bond thus uses the strength of the English bond and
appearance of Flemish bond.
• However, this bond can be used for those walls having thickness at
least equal to 1 -brick.
• Double Flemish bond facing is done with good quality expensive
bricks.
• However, cheaper bricks can be used for backing and hearting.
TYPES OF BONDS
TYPES OF BONDS
 COMPARISON OF ENGLISH BOND AND FLEMISH BOND
• English bond is stronger than Flemish bond for walls thicker than
1 -brick.
• Flemish bond gives more pleasing appearance than the English
bond.
• Broken bricks can be used in the form of bats in Flemish bond.
However, more mortar is required.
• Construction with Flemish bond requires greater skill in comparison
to English bond.
 CEMENT CONCRETE
• Cement concrete, commonly referred to as concrete, is a
construction material composed of cement, aggregates (such as
sand and gravel or crushed stone), water, and sometimes
additional admixtures or additives.
• It is one of the most widely used construction materials in the world
due to its versatility, durability, and strength.
• The components of cement concrete are mixed together to form a
paste-like consistency that can be molded or poured into various
shapes and structures.
 CEMENT CONCRETE
• The cement acts as a binder that holds the aggregates together,
while the water enables the mixture to become fluid and facilitates
the chemical reaction known as hydration, which leads to the
hardening and solidification of the concrete.
• Aggregates provide bulk and stability to the concrete mixture,
contributing to its strength and dimensional stability.
• Commonly used aggregates include sand, gravel and crushed
stone.
 CEMENT CONCRETE
• Various types of cement, such as Portland cement, are used in
concrete production.
• These cements undergo a chemical process called hydration when
mixed with water, resulting in the formation of a hardened material
with strong bonding properties.
• Admixtures or additives may be incorporated into the concrete
mixture to modify its properties, enhance workability, improve
durability, or achieve specific performance requirements.
• Examples of admixtures include water reducers, accelerators,
retarders, air-entraining agents, and superplasticizers.
 CEMENT CONCRETE
• Once placed and properly cured, cement concrete becomes a
solid, strong, and durable material that can be used in a wide range
of applications, including buildings, bridges, roads, pavements,
dams, and various other types of infrastructure.
• Generally cement concrete are of two types:
• PCC (Plain Cement Concrete)
• RCC (Reinforced Cement Concrete)
 PLAIN CEMENT CONCRETE (PCC)
• Plain cement concrete (PCC), also known as plain concrete, is a
construction material composed of a mixture of cement, fine
aggregates (such as sand), coarse aggregates (such as crushed
stone or gravel), and water.
• It is one of the most commonly used types of concrete in
construction projects.
• The primary function of PCC is to provide a strong and durable
base or foundation for various structures, such as floors,
pavements, footings, and slabs.
 PLAIN CEMENT CONCRETE (PCC)
• It is typically used in areas that do not require high strength, such
as non-load-bearing walls, small residential constructions, and
where a smooth and level surface is needed.
• The proportions of the constituents in PCC are generally specified
by volume or weight, and the most common ratio is 1:2:4, which
means one part cement, two parts fine aggregate, and four parts
coarse aggregate.
• Water is added to the mixture to facilitate the hydration of cement,
which leads to the hardening and setting of the concrete.
 PLAIN CEMENT CONCRETE (PCC)
• Plain cement concrete is usually mixed on-site and poured into
formwork or molds, where it is allowed to cure and gain strength
over time.
• It provides a solid and stable base for further construction activities
and can also serve as a finishing layer when a smoother surface is
desired.
 REINFORCED CEMENT CONCRETE (RCC)
• Reinforced cement concrete (RCC) is a composite construction
material that consists of cement, fine aggregates (such as sand),
coarse aggregates (such as crushed stone or gravel), water, and
reinforcement bars (usually made of steel).
• It is widely used in the construction industry for structural elements
that require higher strength and resistance to tensile forces.
• The addition of reinforcement bars to the concrete provides
enhanced strength and ductility to withstand tension and bending
forces.
 REINFORCED CEMENT CONCRETE (RCC)
• The reinforcement bars are strategically placed within the concrete
structure, typically in the form of a steel mesh or steel bars, before
the concrete is poured.
• The process of creating RCC involves the following steps:
• Design: Engineers analyze the structural requirements and
determine the appropriate proportions of cement, aggregates, and
water to achieve the desired strength and durability.
• Mixing: The cement, aggregates, and water are mixed to form a
homogeneous mixture. The mixing can be done manually or by using
mechanical mixers.
 REINFORCED CEMENT CONCRETE (RCC)
• The process of creating RCC involves the following steps:
• Placement: The mixed concrete is placed in the formwork or molds,
and the reinforcement bars are positioned as per the structural design.
The bars are spaced and supported to ensure they remain in the
desired position during pouring.
• Compaction: The concrete is compacted using tools or vibrating
equipment to remove any air voids and ensure proper bonding
between the concrete and reinforcement.
• Curing: After placement, the concrete is allowed to cure and gain
strength over time. Curing methods may include covering the structure
with moist curing blankets, spraying water, or using curing compounds.
 REINFORCED CEMENT CONCRETE (RCC)
• The combination of cement, aggregates, water, and reinforcement
bars in RCC results in a material that can withstand compressive
forces due to the concrete's strength and tensile forces due to the
reinforcement bars.
• This makes RCC suitable for a wide range of applications, including
beams, columns, slabs, foundations, bridges, and other structural
elements in buildings and infrastructure projects.
FORMWORK
 FORMWORK
• The form work or shuttering is a temporary construction used as a
mould for the structure, in which concrete is placed and in which it
hardens and matures.
• The construction of form work involves considerable expenditure of
time and material.
• The cost of form work may be up to 20 to 25% of the cost of
structure in building work, and even higher in bridges.
• In order to reduce this expenditure, it is necessary to design
economical types of form work and to mechanize its construction.
 FORMWORK
• When the concrete has reached a certain required strength, the
form is no longer needed and is removed.
• The operation of removing the form work is commonly known as
stripping.
• When stripping takes place, the components of form work are
removed and then reused for the forms of another part of the
structure.
• Forms are classified as wooden, plywood, steel, combined wood-
steel, reinforced concrete and plain concrete.
• Timber is the most common material used for form work.
 FORMWORK
• The disadvantage of wooden form work is the possibility of
warping, swelling and shrinkage of the timber.
• However, those defects can be overcome by applying to the
shuttering water impermeable coatings.
• This coating also prevents the shuttering from adhering to concrete
and hence makes the stripping easier.
• Steel shuttering is used for major work where every thing is
mechanized.
 FORMWORK
• Steel form work has many advantages, such as follows:
• It can be put to high number of uses,
• It provides ease of stripping,
• It ensures an even and smooth concrete surface,
• It possesses greater rigidity,
• It is not liable to shrinkage or distortion.
• However, steel form work is comparatively more costly.
 PLASTERING
• Plastering is the process of covering rough surfaces of walls,
columns, ceilings and other building components with thin coat of
plastic mortars to form a smooth durable surface.
• The coating of plastic material (i.e., mortar) is termed as plaster.
 OBJECTIVES OF PLASTERING
• To protect the external surfaces against penetration of rain water
and other atmospheric agencies.
• To give smooth surface in which dust and dirt cannot lodge.
• To give decorative effect.
• To conceal inferior materials or defective workmanship.
 REQUIREMENTS OF GOOD PLASTER
• It should adhere to the background, and should remain adhered
during all variations in seasons and other atmospheric conditions.
• It should be hard and durable.
• It should possess good workability.
• It should be possible to apply it during all weather conditions.
• It should be cheap.
• It should effectively check penetration of moisture.
 REQUIREMENTS OF GOOD PLASTER
• It should adhere to the background, and should remain adhered
during all variations in seasons and other atmospheric conditions.
• It should be hard and durable.
• It should possess good workability.
• It should be possible to apply it during all weather conditions.
• It should be cheap.
• It should effectively check penetration of moisture.
 PAINTING
• Apart from protecting various building units from the weathering
action of the atmosphere, the main objective of surface finishing
materials is to provide a decorative finish to obtain a clean,
colourful and pleasing surface.
• Surface finishing materials are paints, varnishes, distempers and
white/colour washing.
• The surfaces may be plastered wall surfaces, ceilings, wooden
surfaces, metallic surfaces, etc.
• These surface finishing materials have to provide a hygienic
surface and present a healthy surrounding to live in.
 PAINTING
• Paint is a liquid surface coating.
• On drying it forms a thin film (60–150 µ) on the painted surface.
• Paint is mainly composed of two ingredients, viz., a base which is a
solid material and a liquid called a vehicle.
• The vehicle carries the solid matter, distributes it evenly and
enables the solid matter to adhere to the surface.
 FUNCTIONS OF PAINTS
• It has to protect the surface from the weathering effects of
atmosphere such as sun, wind, other liquids, fumes, etc.
• It has to prevent corrosion of metal bases and decay of wooden
surfaces.
• It has to provide a smooth surface for easy cleaning.
• It should provide the surface good aesthetic appearance and a
hygienically sound surface.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD PAINT
• The consistency of the paint should be adequately workable.
• It should be capable of being spread across a wide area and cover
the specific area with the minimum quantity of paint.
• The thickness of the paint film should be enough for good
protection and decoration of the surface.
• It should dry within a reasonable time and not too rapidly.
• The dried surface should withstand adverse weather conditions and
should have a long life.
• It should have adequate resistance to moisture, cracking and
flaking.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD PAINT
• It should be attractive as well as pleasing in appearance.
• With time the colour should not fade.
• During the application of paint it should not harm the health of the
workers.
• It should be fairly cheap and economical.