PROBABILITY OF Information Technology

ERROR BLENDIE V. QUIBAN, JR.

PROBABILITY OF ERROR
The concept of probability of error is essential in the context of digital
communications and it is also sometimes known as bit error rate or BER.
The BER is characterized by a bit error ratio.
The bit error ratio is the ratio between the number of bit errors and the total
bits transferred.
The fundamentals of BER are important parameters in determining the
number of bits received in a data stream constituting a communication
channel.
The bit errors refer to those received bits which are altered due to noise,
interference, distortion, and bit synchronization. The error probability of
these bits is generally evaluated using the Monte Carlo simulations.
MONTE CARLO SIMULATION
A Monte Carlo simulation is a mathematical technique that simulates the
range of possible outcomes for an uncertain event. These predictions are
based on an estimated range of values instead of a fixed set of values and
evolve randomly.
A Monte Carlo simulation is used to model the probability of different
outcomes in a process that cannot easily be predicted due to the intervention
of random variables.
It is a technique used to understand the impact of risk and uncertainty.
A Monte Carlo simulation is used to tackle a range of problems in many
fields including investing, business, physics, and engineering.
It is also referred to as a multiple probability simulation.
Sometimes for simpler models such as Bernoulli's distribution, analytical
simulations are also preferred. Some of the other simpler models used in the
information theory are the binary symmetric model and additive white
Gaussian noise model. The parameter, bit error is expressed as a function of
where Eb is the energy per bit
and No is the noise power spectral density.

For instance, in the phase shift modulation process, the bit error rate is
expressed as,

where, represents the bit error rate, and the erfc represents the Gauss error
function.
The performance of the digital communication system is determined by
plotting BER curves. The BER vs received power graphs are often used in
optical communication systems, where BER vs signal to ratio (SNR) curves
are used for wireless communications.
PACKET ERROR
PROBABILITY
The packet error probability (PER) is the expected value of the packet error
ratio. The packet error ratio is the ratio between the number of incorrectly
received packets and the total number of received packets. The packet error
probability can be expressed as,

Here, N is the length of a data packet,

PE is the probability of packet error,
Pe is the bit error probability, which is the expected value of the BER.
The packet error ratio is often characterized by the packet error rate, that is,
PER. The PER provides a tool to compute the performance of digital
communication systems. This PER is specially used to compute signals when
it experiences block fading. Block fading is a process where signal
experiences slow coherence time as compared to their transmission rate.
PARAMETERS THAT AFFECT
THE BER
A communication system is normally characterized by transmission and receiver.
On the receiver side, the BER is extensively influenced by noise, wireless multipath
fading, interferences, distortion, bit synchronization, attenuation, and other various
factors. The BER can be improved by using the following approaches:
 By choosing a signal path that provides adequate signal strength
 Selecting a robust modulation scheme
 By selecting a slow modulation scheme
 By using the line coding scheme
 By using channel coding schemes like redundant forward error correction
code
On the transmission side, the BER is given by,

Where TBER denotes the transmission bit error rate.

There lies another parameter which is known as the information BER which
is generally smaller than transmission BER. The information BER usually
represents the decoding error probability. The decoding error probability is
given by,

Where PD represents the decoding error probability.

BER TESTING
The bit error rate is analyzed using a bit error rate tester (BERT) device.
The BERT device is an electronic instrument that is used to test the
quality of signals both for complete systems and single-component
systems. The BERT is usually applied to wireless communication,
telecommunication systems, and radio communication systems. These
devices can also determine the performance of data links, which
include fiber optics and wireless links.
There are generally five modules that constitute the BERT equipment, they are:
Pattern generator: The pattern generator is an electronic device that is extensively
used in digital electronics to generate a digital signal or specific waveform. These
wave patterns are externally applied to the device which is under test.
Error detector: Error detectors are specialized equipment with algorithms
that are intended for rapid error computations. These error detectors detect
the errors generated by the device which is under test.
Clock signal generator: Clock signal generators are used to synchronize the
working and communication between the pattern generator and the error
detector.
Digital communication analyzer: These modules display the transmitted
and received signals.
Electrical to optical converter: These are devices that convert the electrical
signals to optical signals or pulses, which are intended to be transmitted by
fiber optics.
BIT ERROR RATE STRESS
PATTERNS
The bit error rate testing is applied in communication circuits, and the test
results are characterized by a sequence of ones (1) and zeros (0). This
sequence is generated by the test pattern generator. There are various types of
stress patterns that can be viewed in the BERT machine, they are:
Pseudorandom binary sequence (PRBS): This is a binary sequence
consisting of N bits. These sequences are used to measure signal jitters. Jitter
is the deviation of a signal from its periodicity.
Quasi random signal source (QRSS): The QRSS generates 20-bit words
that repeat every 1048575 words. The QRSS suppresses zero to fourteen
times.
3 in 24: The 3 in 24 is characterized by the longest string of consecutive
zeros.
1:7: These stress patterns are also known as 1 in 8. These patterns are
characterized by a single 1 in an eight-bit repeating sequence.
All ones: This pattern consumes the maximum power in the repeater. This
sequence is characterized by all repeating ones.
All zeros: The pattern is characterized by the maximum number of zeros, or
the signal pattern is composed of zeros only.
SIMPLE QUIZ
1. What is the abbreviation of BERT?
A. Bit error rate tester
B. Bit error rate testing
C. Bit error rate test
D. Byte error rate tester
2. What is the purpose of a signal clock generator?
A. To generate synchronized signals
B. To generate digital pulses
C. To synchronize the working of pattern generators and error detectors
D. None of these
3. What does the function erfc represent?
A. Exponential function
B. Bernoulli's function
C. Poisson's function
D. Gauss error function
What is the abbreviation for PRBS?
A. Pseudorandom byte sequencing
B. Pseudorandom bit sequencing
C. Pseudorandom bit sequence
D. Pseudorandom byte sequence
5. What is the correct expression for packet error probability?

A.
B.
C.
D.
THANK YOU VERY
MUCH!

PROBABILITY OF Information Technology

ERROR BLENDIE V. QUIBAN, JR.

ANSWERS
1. A
2. C
3. D
4. C
5. A
EXPLANATION
1. [A] A bit error rate tester or BERT is an electronic device that is used to test the quality of
signals for both single-component systems and complete systems.
2. [C] Clock signal generators are oscillator-type devices that are used to synchronize circuit
operations. The clock signal generator is used to synchronize the operation of error detectors
and pattern generators.
3. [D] The Gauss error function erfc is sometimes represented as erf(z). he Gauss error
function is a complex function of a complex variable. It is a special function that often
occurs in probability, statistics, and partial differential equations.
4. [C] The pseudorandom bit sequence or PRBS is one of the stress patterns generated by the
BERT device. These sequences are used to represent the number of signal jitters.
5. [A] The packet error probability is the expected value of the packet error ratio. It is given by