Chapter 2: Problem

Solving and Reasoning

Objectives:
The students will be able to:

• Apply different types of reasoning to understand statements and

arguments made about mathematics and mathematical concepts.
• Solve problems involving patterns and sequence.
• Create a logical and step-by-step solution to a given problem.
Topics:
• Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
• Problem Solving with Patterns
• Polya’s 4-steps in problem-solving strategy
2.1: Inductive and
Deductive Reasoning
Inductive Reasoning
Inductive Reasoning
The type of reasoning that forms a conclusion based on the
examination of specific examples is called inductive reasoning.
The conclusion formed by using inductive reasoning is a
conjecture, since it may or may not be correct.
Inductive reasoning is the process of reaching a general
conclusion by examining specific examples.
When you examine a list of numbers and predict the next
number in the list according to some pattern you have
observed, you are using inductive reasoning.
Using Inductive Reasoning to predict a
number
Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in each of
the following lists.

a. 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, ?

b. 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, ?
Using Inductive Reasoning to predict a
number
Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in each of the
following lists.

a. 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, ?
a. Each successive number is 3 larger than the preceding number. Thus we
predict that the next number in the list is 3 larger than 15, which is 18.
b. 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, ?
a. The first two numbers differ by 2. The second and the third numbers differ
by 3. It appears that the difference between any two numbers is always 1
more than the preceding difference. Since 10 and 15 differ by 5, we predict
that the next number in the list will be 6 larger than 15, which is 21.
Using Inductive
Reasoning to solve an
application
Use the data in the table
and inductive reasoning
to answer each of the
following questions.
a. If a pendulum has a
length of 49 units, what is
its period?
Using Inductive
Reasoning to solve an
application
Use the data in the table
and inductive reasoning
to answer each of the
following questions.
b. If the length of a
pendulum is quadrupled,
what happens to its
period?
Using Inductive
Reasoning to solve an
application
a. If a pendulum has a length of
49 units, what is its period?
Solution: In the table, each
pendulum has a period that is
the square root of its length.
Thus we conjecture that a
pendulum with a length of 49
units will have a period of
7 heartbeats.
Using Inductive
Reasoning to solve an
application
b. If the length of a pendulum is
quadrupled, what happens to its
period?
Solution: In the table, a pendulum
with a length of 4 units has a period
that is twice that of a pendulum
with a length of 1 unit. A pendulum
with a length of 16 units has a
period that is twice that of a
pendulum with a length of 4 units. It
appears that quadrupling the length
of a pendulum doubles its period.
Counterexamples
Counterexamples
A statement is a true statement provided that it is true in all
cases. If you can find one case for which a statement is not
true, called a counterexample, then the statement is a false
statement. In Example 4 we verify that each statement is a
false statement by finding a counterexample for each.
Examples: Find a Counterexample
Deductive Reasoning
Deductive Reasoning
Another type of reasoning is called deductive reasoning.
Deductive reasoning is distinguished from inductive reasoning
in that it is the process of reaching a conclusion by applying
general principles and procedures.
Use Deductive
Reasoning to Establish • Procedure: Pick a number.
a Conjecture Multiply the number by 8, add 6 to
Use deductive the product, divide the sum by 2,
reasoning to show and subtract 3.
that the following
procedure produces a
number that is four
times the original
number.
Inductive vs Deductive
Examples: Determine the Types of Reasoning
a. During the past 10 years, a tree has produced plums every other
year. Last year the tree did not produce plums, so this year the tree
will produce plums.
b. All home improvements cost more than the estimate. The
contractor estimated that my home improvement will cost $35,000.
Thus my home improvement will cost more than $35,000
Examples: Determine the Types of Reasoning
a. During the past 10 years, a tree has produced plums every other
year. Last year the tree did not produce plums, so this year the tree
will produce plums. This argument reaches a conclusion based on
specific examples, so it is an example of inductive reasoning.
b. All home improvements cost more than the estimate. The
contractor estimated that my home improvement will cost $35,000.
Thus my home improvement will cost more than $35,000. Because
the conclusion is a specific case of a general assumption, this
argument is an example of deductive reasoning.
Logic Puzzles
Logic Puzzles
Logic puzzles can be solved by using deductive
reasoning and a chart that enables us to display the
given information in a visual manner.
Example: Solve a Each of four neighbors, Sean, Maria, Sarah,
and Brian, has a different occupation
Logic Puzzle (editor, banker, chef, or dentist). From the
following clues, determine the occupation
of each neighbor.
1. Maria gets home from work after the
banker but before the dentist.
2. Sarah, who is the last to get home from
work, is not the editor.
3. The dentist and Sarah leave for work at
the same time.
4. The banker lives next door to Brian.
 Brianna, Ryan, Tyler, and Ashley were
Example: Solve a recently elected as the new class officers
Logic Puzzle (president, vice president, secretary,
(Recorded Activity) treasurer) of the sophomore class at
Summit College. From the following clues,
determine which position each holds.
1. Ashley is younger than the president
but older than the treasurer.
2. Brianna and the secretary are both
the same age, and they are the
youngest members of the group.
3. Tyler and the secretary are next-door
neighbors.
KenKen Puzzle
Here is a 4 by 4 puzzle and its solution. Properly
constructed puzzles have a unique solution.
Assignment:
Solve!
Assignment:
Solve!
2.2:
Problem Solving with Patterns
Arithmetic Sequence
Problem Solving with Patterns
An ordered list of numbers such as 5, 14, 27, 44, 65, ... is called a
sequence. The numbers in a sequence that are separated by commas
are the terms of the sequence.
The three dots “...” indicate that the sequence continues beyond 65,
which is the last written term. It is customary to use the subscript
notation an to designate the nth term of a sequence. That is,
represents the first term of a sequence.
represents the second term of a sequence.
represents the nth term of a sequence.
Problem Solving with Patterns
When we examine a sequence, it is natural to ask:
■ What is the next term?
■ What formula or rule can be used to generate the terms?

To answer these questions, we often construct a difference table, which

shows the differences between successive terms of the sequence. The
following table is a difference table for the sequence 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, ...
Problem Solving with Patterns
Each of the numbers in row (1) of the table is the difference between
the two closest numbers just above it (upper right number minus upper
left number). The differences in row (1) are called the first differences
of the sequence.
Problem Solving with Patterns
The following table is a difference table for the sequence 5, 14, 27, 44,
65, ...
Example: Predict the Next Term of a
Sequence
Use a difference table to predict the next term in the sequence. 2, 7,
24, 59, 118, 207, …
Finding the nth term of an arithmetic
sequence

Where:
a is the first term
nth term
d= common difference
Finding the nth term of an arithmetic
sequence

Find the 20th term in the sequence 3,8,13,…

The Fibonacci Sequence
The Fibonacci Numbers
Example: Find a Fibonacci Number
Use the definition of Fibonacci numbers to find the seventh and eighth
Fibonacci numbers.
Binet’s Formula
Binet’s Formula
The following formula is known as Binet’s formula for the nth
Fibonacci number.

The advantage of this formula over the recursive formula is

that you can determine the nth Fibonacci number without
finding the two preceding Fibonacci numbers.
Examples: Binet’s Formula
Use Binet’s formula and a calculator to find the 20th, 30th,
and 40th Fibonacci numbers.
Geometric Sequence
Geometric Sequence
• The ratio of a term to it’s previous term is constant.
• This means you multiply by the same number to get each
term.
• This number that you multiply by is called the common ratio
(r).
Example: Decide whether each sequence is
geometric.
• 3,9,-27,-81,243,…
4,-8,16,-32,…
• 9-8//34=3
=-2
• -27
16
//-89=-3
=-2
• -81
-32
/-27
16=-2
=3
• 243/-81=-3
• Geometric (common ratio is -2)
• Not geometric
Find the rule for an for the following sequence.
• 2, 4, 8, 16, 32…
1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th

Think of how to use the common ratio, n and

a1, to determine

the term value.

Rule for a Geometric Sequence
an=a1rn-1
Example 1: Write a rule for the nth term of the
sequence 5, 20, 80, 320,… . Then find a8.
•First, find r. a8=5(4)8-1
•r= 20/5 = 4
a8=5(4)7
•an=5(4)n-1
a8=5(16,384)
A8=81,920
Example 2: One term of a geometric sequence
is a4=3. The common ratio is r=3. Write a
rule for the nth term.

• Use an=a1rn-1
3=a1(3)4-1
3=a1(3)3
3=a1(27)
1
/9=a1
• an=a1rn-1
an=(1/9)(3)n-1
2.3: Polya’s 4 Steps in
Problem Solving
Polya’s 4 Steps in Problem Solving
One of the foremost recent mathematicians to make a study of
problem solving was George Polya (1887–1985). He was born in
Hungary and moved to the United States in 1940. The basic problem-
solving strategy that Polya advocated consisted of the following four
steps:
1. Understand the problem
2. Devise a plan
3. Carry out the plan
4. Review the solution
Polya’s 4 Steps in Problem Solving
Polya’s four steps are deceptively simple. To become a good problem
solver, it helps to examine each of these steps and determine what is
involved.
Polya’s 4 Steps in Problem Solving
Understand the Problem: This part of Polya’s four-step strategy is often
overlooked. You must have a clear understanding of the problem. To
help you focus on understanding the problem, consider the following
questions.
■ Can you restate the problem in your own words?
■ Can you determine what is known about these types of problems?
■ Is there missing information that, if known, would allow you to solve
the problem?
■ Is there extraneous information that is not needed to solve the
problem?
■ What is the goal?
Polya’s 4 Steps in Problem Solving
Devise a Plan: Successful problem solvers use a variety of techniques
when they attempt to solve a problem. Here are some frequently used
procedures.
■ Make a list of the known information.
■ Make a list of information that is needed.
■ Draw a diagram.
■ Make an organized list that shows all the possibilities.
■ Make a table or a chart.
Polya’s 4 Steps in Problem Solving
Devise a Plan:
■ Work backwards.
■ Try to solve a similar but simpler problem.
■ Look for a pattern.
■ Write an equation. If necessary, define what each variable represents.
■ Perform an experiment.
■ Guess at a solution and then check your result
Polya’s 4 Steps in Problem Solving
Carry Out the Plan: Once you have devised a plan, you must carry it
out.
■ Work carefully.
■ Keep an accurate and neat record of all your attempts.
■ Realize that some of your initial plans will not work and that you may
have to devise another plan or modify your existing plan
Polya’s 4 Steps in Problem Solving
Review the Solution: Once you have found a solution, check the
solution.
■ Ensure that the solution is consistent with the facts of the problem.
■ Interpret the solution in the context of the problem.
■ Ask yourself whether there are generalizations of the solution that
could apply to other problems.
Polya’s 4 Steps in Problem Solving
Note:
The strategy of working a similar but simpler problem is an important
problem-solving strategy that can be used to solve many problems.
Polya’s 4 Steps in Problem Solving
Example:
A baseball team won two out of their last four games. In how many
different orders could they have two wins and two losses in four
games?
Polya’s 4 Steps in Problem Solving
Solution:
Understand the Problem
There are many different orders. The team may have won two straight
games and lost the last two (WWLL). Or maybe they lost the first two
games and won the last two (LLWW). Of course there are other
possibilities, such as WLWL.
Devise a Plan
We will make an organized list of all the possible orders. An organized
list is a list that is produced using a system that ensures that each of the
different orders will be listed once and only once.
Polya’s 4 Steps in Problem Solving
Solution:
Carry Out the Plan
Each entry in our list must contain two Ws and two Ls. We will use a
strategy that makes sure each order is considered, with no duplications.
One such strategy is to always write a W unless doing so will produce
too many Ws or a duplicate of one of the previous orders. If it is not
possible to write a W, then and only then do we write an L.
Review the Solution
We have made an organized list. The list has no duplicates and the list
considers all possibilities, so we are confident that there are six
different orders in which a baseball team can win exactly two out of
Polya’s 4 Steps in Problem Solving
Example:
The product of the ages, in years, of three teenagers is 4590. None of
the teens are the same age. What are the ages of the teenagers?
Polya’s 4 Steps in Problem Solving
Solution:
Understand the Problem
We need to determine three distinct counting numbers, from the list 13,
14, 15, 16, 17, 18, and 19, that have a product of 4590
Devise a Plan
If we represent the ages by x, y, and z, then xyz = 4590. We are unable to
solve this equation, but we notice that 4590 ends in a zero. Hence, 4590
has a factor of 2 and a factor of 5, which means that at least one of the
numbers we seek must be an even number and at least one number must
have 5 as a factor. The only number in our list that has 5 as a factor is 15.
Thus 15 is one of the numbers, and at least one of the other numbers must
be an even number. At this point we try to solve by guessing and checking.
Polya’s 4 Steps in Problem Solving
Solution:
Carry Out the Plan
15 ? 16 ? 18 = 4320 • No. This product is too small.
15 ? 16 ? 19 = 4560 • No. This product is too small.
15 ? 17 ? 18 = 4590 • Yes. This is the correct product.
Review the Solution
Because 15X17X18 = 4590 and each of the ages represents the age of a
teenager, we know our solution is correct. None of the numbers 13, 14,
16, and 19 is a factor (divisor) of 4590, so there are no other solutions.
Polya’s 4 Steps in Problem Solving
Solution:
Carry Out the Plan
15 ? 16 ? 18 = 4320 • No. This product is too small.
15 ? 16 ? 19 = 4560 • No. This product is too small.
15 ? 17 ? 18 = 4590 • Yes. This is the correct product.
Review the Solution
Because 15X17X18 = 4590 and each of the ages represents the age of a
teenager, we know our solution is correct. None of the numbers 13, 14,
16, and 19 is a factor (divisor) of 4590, so there are no other solutions.
Polya’s 4 Steps in Problem Solving
Example:
A hat and a jacket together cost $100. The jacket costs $90 more than
the hat. What are the cost of the hat and the cost of the jacket?
Polya’s 4 Steps in Problem Solving
Solution:
Understand the Problem
After reading the problem for the first time, you may think that the
jacket costs $90 and the hat costs $10. The sum of these costs is $100,
but the cost of the jacket is only $80 more than the cost of the hat. We
need to find two dollar amounts that differ by $90 and whose sum is
$100.
Devise a Plan
Write an equation using h for the cost of the hat and h + 90 for the cost
of the jacket.
h + h + 90 = 100
Polya’s 4 Steps in Problem Solving
Solution:
Carry Out the Plan
2h + 90 = 100 • Collect like terms.
2h = 10 • Solve for h.
h=5
Review the Solution
The sum of the costs is $5 + $95 = $100, and the cost of the jacket is
$90 more than the cost of the hat. This check conrms that the hat costs
$5 and the jacket costs $95.
Polya’s 4 Steps in Problem Solving
Solution:
Carry Out the Plan
15 ? 16 ? 18 = 4320 • No. This product is too small.
15 ? 16 ? 19 = 4560 • No. This product is too small.
15 ? 17 ? 18 = 4590 • Yes. This is the correct product.
Review the Solution
Because 15X17X18 = 4590 and each of the ages represents the age of a
teenager, we know our solution is correct. None of the numbers 13, 14,
16, and 19 is a factor (divisor) of 4590, so there are no other solutions.
Polya’s 4 Steps in Assignment:
Problem Solving Consider the map shown in the
figure below. Taylor Swift wishes to
walk along the streets from point A
to point B. How many direct routes
can Taylor Swift take?