Lec 1 Introduction To Networks

Introduction to Networks
Objectives
Topic Title Topic Objective
Network classification Explain how networks is classified based on different
factors.
Network Components Explain how host and network devices are used.
Network Representations Explain network representations and how they are used
and Topologies in network topologies.
Common Types of Networks Compare the characteristics of common types of

networks.
Reliable Networks Describe the four basic requirements of a reliable

network.
Network Security Identify some basic security threats and solution for all
networks.
2
© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 2
Introduction
Network Definition
A network can be defined as
two or more computers
connected together in such a
way that they can share
resources.
The purpose of a network is to
share resources:
A file A folder A
printer A disk drive
Or just about anything else that
exists on a computer.
 A computer network can be

defined as two or more
computers connected in such a
way that they can share
resources. The connection can
take place over a variety of
transmission media including
copper wire, fiber optic cable,
and radio waves (e.g.,
microwave, infrared,
4 communication satellites).
Network vs. Networking
Networking is the term that describes the processes involved in designing,
implementing, upgrading, managing and otherwise working with networks and network
technologies.
5
Network Communications
Network communication, or internetworking, defines a set of protocols (that is, rules and standards)
that allow application programs to talk with each other without regard to the hardware and
operating systems.
Before beginning to communicate establish rules (protocols) or agreements are established to govern
the conversation. Among the protocols that govern successful human communication as an example
are:
• Identification of the sender and receiver.
• Agreement on the method.
• Using Common language.
• Speed and delivery of the message.
• Confirmation that the message was received.
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Network Components
Network Components
Networks
components
Hardware Software
Devices Media Networking

Operating Protocol
System
8
Network Components
1- Network Devices
Equipment that connects directly to a network segment is referred to as a device.
These devices are broken up into two classifications:
 end-user devices
 Intermediate network devices
End-user devices
Intermediate devices
9
Network Components
End-User Devices
 An end device is where a message originates from or where it is received.
 Data originates with an end device, flows through the network, and arrives at an end device.
 To distinguish one end device from another, each end device on a network has an address.
 When an end device initiates communication, it uses the address of the destination end device to
specify where to deliver the message.
 An end device is either the source or destination of a message transmitted over the network.
Physical addresses Network addresses Application addresses
 The machine
address called  is a numerical label
assigned to each device  The application
Media Access connected to a
Control (MAC) address called port
computer network that address.
address. uses the Internet
Protocol for
 It is a 6 octet communication.
 It is a decimal number.
hexadecimal  Well Known Ports
 called internet protocol  Registered Ports
number. (ex: (IP) address.  Dynamic or Private
2A:3E:14:23:1C:87  It is a 4 dotted decimal
) number. (ex:
121.13.0.0)
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Network Components
Intermediary Network Devices

An intermediary device interconnects end devices in a network.
Examples include switches, wireless access points, routers, and firewalls. The management of data
as it flows through a network is also the role of an intermediary device including:
• Regenerate and retransmit data signals.
• Maintain information about what pathways exist through the network and internetwork.
• Notify other devices of errors and communication failures.
• Direct data along alternate pathways when there is a link failure
• Classify and direct messages according to priorities
• Permit or deny the flow of data, based on security settings
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Network Components

Repeater Hub
• A repeater is a network device used  Hubs concentrate connections.
to regenerate a signal.  In other words, they take a group of hosts and
• Repeaters regenerate analog or allow the network to see them as a single unit.
digital signals distorted by  This is done passively, without any other effect on
transmission loss due to attenuation. the data transmission.
• A repeater does not perform  Active hubs not only concentrate hosts, but they
intelligent routing like a bridge or also regenerate signals.
router.  Hub broadcasts the data to all connected device
except the sender.
Hub
Repeater
12
Network Components

Bridge Switch
• Bridges convert network • A switch is a bridge that has multiple ports.
transmission data formats as well • Switches can perform error checking before
as perform basic data transmission forwarding data, which are very efficient by not
management. Bridges, as the forwarding packets that error-end out or forwarding
name implies, provide connections good packets selectively to correct devices only.
between LANs. • Network switches transfer data across a network
• Not only do bridges connect LANs, segment using MAC addresses for reference.
but they also perform a check on • The switch becomes the common LAN Ethernet
the data to determine whether it intermediary device.
should cross the bridge or not.
• This makes each part of the
network more efficient.
Switch
Bridge
13
Network Components

Router Cloud
• Routers have all the capabilities of the previous
The cloud is used in diagrams to represent
devices.
• Routers can regenerate signals, concentrate where the connection to the internet is. It
multiple connections, convert data transmission also represents all of the devices on the
formats, and manage data transfers. internet
• Routers can also connect to a WAN, which allows
them to connect LANs that are separated by great
distances.
• Routers use the IP address to forward packets, Cloud
which allows the network to go across different
protocols.
Router
14
Network Components
2- Network Media
 Communication across a network is carried through a medium which allows a message to travel from
source to destination.
 In wired connections, the medium is either copper, which carries electrical signals, or optical fiber,
which carries light signals.
 In wireless connections, the medium is the Earth's atmosphere, or space, and the signals are
microwaves.
 Different types of network media have different features and benefits.
 Not all network media have the same characteristics, and they are not all appropriate for the same
purpose.
 Networks typically use three types of media:
• Metallic wires within cables, such as copper
• Glass, such as fiber optic cables
• Wireless transmission
The criteria for
choosing network
media are:
• The distance the
media can
successfully carry a
signal
• The environment in
which the media is to
be installed
• The amount of data
and the speed at
which it must be
transmitted
• The cost of the media
15
and installation
Network Components
2- Network Media
 Media Bandwidth describes the maximum data transfer rate of a network or Internet connection.
 It measures how much data can be sent over a specific connection in a given amount of time.
 While Throughput refers to the actual measured bandwidth, at a specific time of day, using
specific Internet routes, and while a specific set of data is transmitted on the network.
 Unfortunately, throughput is often far less than the maximum possible digital bandwidth of the
medium that is being used.
 The following are some of the factors that determine throughput:
• Internetworking devices
• Type of data being transferred
• Network topology
• Number of users on the network
• Network media
 Media bandwidth and throughput can be measured through the following formula:
16
Network Components
2- Network Media
The instantaneous throughput at any instant of time is the rate (in bits/sec) at which destination is
receiving the file. (Many applications display the instantaneous throughput during downloads in the user
interface).
the average throughput is the total payload over the entire session divided by the total time. Total time
is calculated by taking the difference in timestamps between the first and last packet.
The figure shows a client connected to a server through a series of routers. This network is connected by links with
transmission rates R1, R2, ……, and RN. The average throughput to transmit a file S bits can be calculated as
S/min{R1, R2, ……, RN }.
bottleneck link
link on end-end path that constrains end-end throughput
17
Example
• Suppose you are downloading an MP3 file of L= 32 million bits,

• the server has a transmission rate of Rs = 2 Mbps,
• you have an access link of Rc = 1 Mbps.
• What is the time needed to download the file?
 The time needed to transfer the file is then 32 seconds.

 These expressions for throughput and transfer time are only approximations, as they do not account
18
for store-and-forward and processing delays as well as protocol issues.

Throughput: Internet scenario
• per-connection end-end throughput: min(R c,Rs,R/10)

• in practice: Rc or Rs is often bottleneck
Rs
Rs Rs
Rc Rc
Rc
10 connections (fairly) share backbone bottleneck link R bits/sec

19
Network Components
3- Rules (Protocols)
 Protocols are the rules that the networked devices use to communicate with each other.
 The industry standard in networking today is a set of protocols called TCP/IP (Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol).
 TCP/IP is used in home and business networks, as well as being the primary protocol of the Internet.
 It is TCP/IP protocols that specify the formatting, addressing and routing mechanisms that ensure our
messages are delivered to the correct recipient.
 Protocols define the syntax and the order of messages transferred between the sender and the
receiver.
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Network Components
Network Representations
Network diagrams, often called topology diagrams, use symbols to represent devices within the network.
21
Putting It all Together
1. Converted to Binary.
2. NIC generates signals.
3. Passed among LAN devices.
4. Exit the local area (router).
22
The many interconnected devices worldwide are often

represented by a cloud.
5. Bits are transmitted to devices that interconnect

the networks.
23
6. Passed among local devices at the destination.
7. The destination device converts the bits into human readable form.
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Classification of Computer Networks
Classification of Networks
 There are many distinct types of computer networks. Computer network varies with each other based
on many criteria such as:
• transmission media: Wired (UTP, coaxial cables, fiber-optic cables) and Wireless.
• network scale (size): LAN and WAN (and MAN).
• management method: Peer-to-peer and Client/Server.
• topology (connectivity): Bus, Star, Ring …
1- Classification based on Media
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1- Classification based on Media
 Communication across a network is carried through a medium which allows a message to travel from source to
destination.
 Different types of network media have different features and benefits.
 Not all network media have the same characteristics, and they are not all appropriate for the same purpose.
Networks can be classified based on transmission media to:
• Wired or Bound/Guided Media Network: • Wireless or Unbound/Unguided Media Network:

• This kind of networks provides a physical link • This kind of network does not need any physical link
between two nodes connected in a network. for electromagnetic transmission.
• The physical links are directed towards a particular • Radio waves, Microwaves, Infrared, etc. can be
direction in the network. used in such networks for connectivity.
• Co-axial, twisted pair, optical fiber cable, etc. can • Access points amplify Wi-Fi signals, so a device can
be used in such networks for connectivity. be far from a router but still be connected to the
• The type of signals used for transferring data in network.
copper media (Co-axial, twisted pair) is electrical • When you connect to a Wi-Fi hotspot at a cafe, a
signals. hotel, an airport lounge, or another public place,
• While light waves are used for transferring data in you're connecting to that business's wireless
optical fiber cables. network.
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2- Classification of Networks by Scale
PAN (Personal Area Network) LAN(Local Area Network)

• Personal Area Network is a • Local Area Network is a group of computers
network arranged within an connected to each other in a small area such as
individual person, typically building, office.
• LAN is used for connecting two or more personal
within a range of 10 meters.
computers through a communication medium such as
• Personal Area Network is
twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
used for connecting the • It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive
computer devices of personal hardware such as hubs or switches, network adapters,
use is known as Personal Area and ethernet cables.
Network. • The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in
• Personal Area Network Local Area Network. Local Area Network provides
covers an area of 30 feet. higher security.
Personal computer devices
that are used to develop the
personal area network are the
laptop, mobile phones, media
28 player and play stations. © 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 28
MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)

• A metropolitan area network is a
network that covers a larger
geographic area by interconnecting a
different LAN to form a larger
network.
• Government agencies use MAN to
connect to the citizens and private
industries.
• In MAN, various LANs are connected
to each other through a telephone
exchange line.
• It has a higher range than Local Area
Network(LAN).
WAN (Wide Area Network)

• A Wide Area Network is a network that
extends over a large geographical area
such as states or countries.
• A Wide Area Network is quite bigger
network than the LAN.
• A Wide Area Network spans over a large
geographical area through a telephone
line, fiber optic cable or satellite links.
• The internet is one of the biggest WAN in
the world.
• A Wide Area Network is widely used in the
field of Business, government, and
education.
29 • The router is the intermediate device © 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 29
connects LANs to form WAN.

SAN (Storage Area Network)

A Storage Area Network (SAN) is a specialized, high-speed network that provides block-level network
access to storage.
SANs are typically composed of hosts, switches, storage elements, and storage devices that are
interconnected using a variety of technologies, topologies, and protocols.
 SANs may also span multiple sites. This simplified presentation of storage to a host is accomplished
through the use of different types of virtualization.
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Networks of Many Sizes
31
3- Classification based on Management Method
Based on management method, networks can be categorized to peer-to-peer

model or client server model.
Client/Server Model
 A client-server model consists of workstations or clients • Advantages of client/server networks
requesting a service from a centralized server. • Facilitate resource sharing – centrally administrate
 A server is a node that acts as a service provider for and control
• Facilitate system backup and improve fault
clients.
tolerance
 Servers wait for client requests and then respond to • Enhance security – only administrator can have
them. access to Server
 It controls the level of access that users have to share • Support more users – difficult to achieve with peer-
resources. Servers run network operating system to-peer networks
that can manage not only data, but also users, • Disadvantages of client/server networks
groups, security, and applications on the network. • High cost for Servers
Servers often have a more stringent requirement on • Need expert to configure the network
its performance and reliability • Introduce a single point of failure to the system
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3- Classification based on Management Method
Based on management method, networks can be categorized to peer-to-peer

model or client server model.
Peer-to-Peer Model
 The Peer-to-Peer model is also called P2P or • Advantages of peer-to-peer networks:
workgroup. 'Peers' are the nodes or computer system which • Low cost
• Simple to configure
are connected to each other. In this kind of network, each • User has full accessibility of the computer
node is connected to each other node in the network.
 The Peer-to-Peer model has no hierarchy among computers
(all Peers are equal) and there is no centralized server for • Disadvantages of peer-to-peer networks:
hosting resources. In this model, there is no administrator • May have duplication in resources
responsible for the network. • Difficult to uphold security policy
 The peer-to-peer network is appropriate: • Difficult to handle uneven loading
• 10 or less users
• No specialized services required
• Security is not an issue
• Only limited growth in the foreseeable future
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4- Classification based on Network Topology
Network refers to how various nodes, devices, and connections on

topology your network are physically or logically arranged in relation
to each other.
Physical network topology

refers to the physical connections and interconnections between nodes and the network—the wires,
cables, and so forth.
Logical network topology

referring to the conceptual understanding of how and why the network is arranged the way it is, and
how data moves through it.
 The configuration, or topology, of a network is key to determining its performance.

 The layout of your network is important for several reasons.
 Choosing the right topology for the network can increase performance while making it easier to
locate faults, troubleshoot errors, and more effectively allocate resources across the network to
34 ensure optimal network health.
LAN Physical Topologies

1. Bus Topology 2. Ring Topology
• A bus topology orients all the  Ring topology is where nodes are arranged in a circle (or ring).
devices on a network along a  The data can travel through the ring network in either one direction or
single cable running in a single both directions, with each device having exactly two neighbors.
direction from one end of the  Every computer serves as a repeater to boost signals.
network to the other.  The device in the token-ring topology has to gets the token in order to
• Simple and low-cost
send data.
• A single cable called a trunk  A token is a frame of data transmitted between network devices.
(backbone, segment)  Only a host that holds a token can send data, and tokens are released
• Only one computer can send
when receipt of the data is confirmed.
messages at a time  Disadvantages of this LAN physical topology are:
• Passive topology - computer only
• Difficult to add computers
listen for, not regenerate data
• More expensive
• If one computer fails, whole network fails
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LAN Physical Topologies

3. Star Topology 4. Tree/Hierarchical Topology
 In a star topology, the most common network  The type of Topology in which a central 'root' node, the top level of
topology, every node in the network is directly the hierarchy, is connected to one or more other nodes that are
connected to one central hub via coaxial, twisted-pair, one level lower in the hierarchy.
or fiber-optic cable.  However, where each node in a star topology is directly connected
 The central hub or switch manages data transmission to the central hub, a tree topology has a parent-child hierarchy to
as information sent from any node on the network has how the nodes are connected.
to pass through the central hub or switch to reach its  Those connected to the central hub are connected linearly to other
destination.. nodes, so two connected nodes only share one mutual
 The hub passes the to all other devices in the connection.
topology. On the contrary, the switch passes the data
from the sender to the intended destination. devices
can be added, removed, and modified without taking
the entire network offline.
 The disadvantage of the star topology is, if the central
hub goes down, the rest of the network can’t function.
In addition, Depending on the intelligence of hub, two
or more computers may send message at the same 5. A mesh topology
time.  is implemented to provide as much protection as possible from
interruption of service.
 Each host has its own connections to all other hosts. Although the
Internet has multiple paths to any one location, it does not adopt
the full mesh topology.
 Mesh networks can be full or partial mesh. Partial mesh topologies
are mostly interconnected, with a few nodes with only two or three
connections, while full-mesh topologies are—surprise!—fully
interconnected.
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WAN Physical Topologies

1. Point-to-Point 2. Hub and Spoke
Point-to-Point topology connects two parties Hub and Spoke Topology is used to connect multiple locations. In this
directly. This topology is also called Leased Lines. type of WAN topology, Hub is the central device at one site that is
The service is leased from a Service Provider based connected to all the other devices (spoke). The Spokes are only connected
on required bandwidth and the distance between to the Hub. There is not a direct connection between Spokes.
the two sites. The service of this topology is not a
shared solution. So, Point-to-Point connections with
are an expensive solution.
3. Full Mesh WAN

Full Mesh WAN Topology is the
topology that connects each location to
the other one by one. This topology
needs more resources and expensive.
Besides, it needs an extra effort because
of the number of the connections.
37
Logical Topology
The logical topology defines how the data should transfer. On the contrary of the physical topology,
which consists of the layout of cables, network devices and wiring. Two of the most common logical
topologies are:
1. Bus topology: 2. Ring topology:
In LAN, Ethernet uses the logical bus topology to  In this topology only one node can be allowed to transfer the
data in a network at a given time.
transfer data in case of using a hub device to  This mechanism is achieved by a token (the node having
connect end user devices. Although the topology the token only can transmit the data in a network) and
is physical star topology, but the a logically bus hence the collision can be avoided in a network.
topology where the hub broadcasts the data to  A multi-station access unit (MSAU) is a hub or concentrator
the entire network. All other nodes on the that connects a group of computers to a token ring local
area network.
network listen the data and check if the data is  Token passing controls network access by passing an electronic
intended for them. token sequentially to each host.
 When a host receives the token, that host can send data on the
network. If the host has no data to send, it passes the token to the
next host and the process repeats itself.
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Logical Topology
In following figure, the addressing scheme of a network changed in the presence of the router.
The router segmented the network into three different subnetworks with different network addresses.
In this WAN, each end user device should determine how to send data locally and remotely.
39
Network Transmission
Unicast transmission, in which a packet is sent Broadcast transmission is supported on most LANs (e.g.
from a single source to a specified destination, is Ethernet), and used to send the same message to all
still the predominant form of transmission on computers on the LAN. Some protocols use broadcast to
LANs and within the Internet. In this case there obtain missing information from the network.
is just one sender, but the information is sent to
all connected receivers.
Broadcast
Unicast
Multicast is the networking technique of

delivering the same packet simultaneously to a
group of clients. IP multicast provides
dynamic many-to-many connectivity between
a set of senders (at least one) and a group of
receivers.
Multicast
40
Reliable Networks
Network Architecture
 Networks must support a wide range of applications and services, as well as operate over many
different types of cables and devices, which make up the physical infrastructure.
 The term network architecture, in this context, refers to the technologies that support the
infrastructure and the programmed services and rules, or protocols, that move data across the
network.
 The following figure shows the four basic characteristics that the underlying architectures need to
address to meet user expectations.
42
Fault Tolerance
 A fault tolerant network limits the impact of a failure by limiting the number of affected devices.
Multiple paths are required for fault tolerance.
 Reliable networks provide redundancy by implementing a packet switched network.
 Packet switching splits traffic into packets that are routed over a network.
 Each packet could theoretically take a different path to the destination. This is not possible with
circuit-switched networks which establish dedicated circuits.
43
Circuit Switching
Circuit switching was designed in 1878 in order to send telephone calls down a dedicated channel.
This channel remains open and in use throughout the whole call and cannot be used by any other
data or phone calls.
There are three phases in circuit switching:

o Establish
o Transfer
o Disconnect
The telephone message is sent all together; it is not broken up.
The message arrives in the same order that it was originally sent.
44
Circuit Switching
In modern circuit-switched networks, electronic signals pass through several switches

before a connection is established.
During a call no other network traffic can use those switches.
The resources remain dedicated to the circuit during the entire data transfer and the
entire message follows the same path.
Circuit switching can be analog or digital.
With the expanded
use of the Internet
for voice and
video, analysts
predict a gradual
shift away from
circuit-switched
networks.
A circuit-switched
network is
excellent for data
that needs a
constant link from
end-to-end, for
example, real-time
45 video. © 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 45
Circuit Switching
Circuit Switching Advantages
• Circuit is dedicated to the call – no interference, no sharing

• Guaranteed the full bandwidth for the duration of the call
• Guaranteed quality of service
Circuit Switching Disadvantages
• Inefficient – the equipment may be unused for a lot of the call;

• if no data is being sent, the dedicated line still remains open. It takes a relatively long time to
set up the circuit.
• During a crisis or disaster, the network may become unstable or unavailable.
• It was primarily developed for voice traffic rather than data traffic.
46
Packet Switching
In packet-based networks, the message gets broken into small data packets.
These packets
are sent out
from the
computer and
they travel
around the
network
seeking out
the most
efficient route
to travel as
circuits
become
available.
This does not necessarily mean that they seek out the shortest route.
Each packet may go a different route from the others.
47
Packet Switching
48
Packet Switching
Packet Switching Advantages
• Bandwidth used to full potential

Devices of different speeds can communicate
• Not affected by line failure (redirects signal)Availability
• no waiting for a direct connection to become available.
Packet Switching Disadvantages
• Under heavy use there can be a delay

• Data packets can get lost or become corrupted
• Protocols are needed for a reliable transfer
• Not so good for some types data streams (e.g. real-time video streams can lose frames due to the way packets
arrive out of sequence)
49
Circuit Switching vs. Packet Switching
Circuit Switched Packet Switched
Connection-oriented Connectionless
Dedicated Circuit Shared Circuit
Guaranteed level of service

Messages divided into packets
(Bandwidth, QoS)
Inefficient use of Medium Efficient use of Medium
Single path, no redundancy Fault Tolerant, multiple possible paths
50
Scalability
A scalable network can expand quickly and easily to support new users and
applications without impacting the performance of services to existing users.
51
Network designers follow accepted standards and protocols in order to make the
networks scalable.
Quality of Service
Voice and live video transmissions require higher expectations for those services being
delivered.
Have you ever watched a live video with constant breaks and pauses? This is caused
when there is a higher demand for bandwidth than available – and QoS isn’t
configured.
Quality of Service (QoS) is the primary mechanism used to ensure reliable delivery of
content for all users.
With a QoS policy in place, the router can more easily manage the flow of data and
52 voice traffic.
Reliable Network
Security
Communication Integrity: Ensure Confidentiality:

Digital Signatures, Hashing Strong authentication and
Algorithms, Checksum appropriate encryption
Ensuring Availability:
Combating virus attacks,
Firewalls, Redundant Architecture
There are two main types of network security that must be addressed:
Network infrastructure security
Physical security of network devices
Preventing unauthorized access to the management software on those devices
Information Security
Protection of the information or data transmitted over the network
Three goals of network security:
Confidentiality – only intended recipients can read the data
Integrity – assurance that the data has not be altered with during transmission
Availability – assurance of timely and reliable access to data for authorized users
53
Security Threats
Network security is an integral part of networking regardless of the size of the

network.
The network security that is implemented must take into account the environment
while securing the data, but still allowing for quality of service that is expected of the
network.
Securing a network involves many protocols, technologies, devices, tools, and
54 techniques in order to secure data and mitigate threats.
Threat vectors might be external or internal.

Security Threats (Cont.)
 External threats:
Viruses, worms, and
Trojan horses
Spyware and adware
Zero-day attacks, also
called zero-hour attacks
Hacker attacks (Threat
actor attacks)
Denial of Service attacks
Data interception and theft
Identify Theft
Internal threats:
Whether intentional or
not, many studies
show that the internal
users of the network
cause the most
security breaches.
With BYOD strategies,
corporate data is more
vulnerable.
55
Security Solutions
Security must be implemented in multiple layers using more than one security
solution.
Network security components for home or small office network:
Antivirus and antispyware software should be installed on end devices.
Firewall filtering used to block unauthorized access to the network.
56
Network Security
Security Solutions (Cont.)
 Larger networks have additional security requirements:
Dedicated firewall system to provide more advanced firewall capabilities.
Access control lists (ACL) – used to further filter access and traffic forwarding.
Intrusion prevention systems (IPS) – used to identify fast-spreading threats such as
zero-day attacks.
Virtual private networks (VPN) – used to provide secure access for remote workers.
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Delays and Packet Loss in Packet-Switched Networks
Delay, loss, and throughput in Packet switched networks
As a packet travels from one node (host or router) to the

subsequent node (host or router) along this path, the
packet suffers from several different types of delays at
each node along the path.
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Processing Delay
is the time required to examine the packet's header and
determine where to direct the packet.
The processing delay can also include other factors, such as
the time needed to check for bit-level errors in the packet that
occurred in transmitting the packet.
60
Queuing Delay
After the nodal processing, the router directs the packet to the queue that
precedes the link to second router.
At the queue, the packet experiences a queuing delay as it waits to be
transmitted onto the link.
The queuing delay of a specific packet will depend on the number of
other, earlier-arriving packets that are queued and waiting for transmission
across the link;
61
001010011101100
Transmission Delay
Assuming that packets are transmitted in a first-come-first-served manner, as is common in
packet-switched networks, our packet can be transmitted only after all the packets that
have arrived before it have been transmitted.
Denote the length of the packet by L bits and denote the transmission rate of the link (from
router A to router B) by R bits/sec.
The rate R is determined by transmission rate of the link to router B (For example, for a 10
Mbps Ethernet link).
The transmission delay (also called the store-and-forward delay) is L/R.
This is the amount of time required to transmit all of the packet's bits into the link.
62
001010011101100
Propagation Delay
is the time required to propagate from the beginning of the link to
destination at the end of the link.
The bit propagates at the propagation speed of the link.
The propagation delay is the distance between two nodes divided by the
propagation speed.
That is, the propagation delay is d/s, where d is the distance between node
A and node B and s is the propagation speed of the link.
63
Nodal delay
dddprop = propagation
proc ==processing
trans
queue
delay
transmission delay
delay
queuing delay
a= few
L/R,microsecs
significant
typically
depends aonfew toforhundreds
low-speed
microsecs
congestion of links
or lessmsecs
64
“Real” Internet delays and routes
• What do “real” Internet delay & loss look
like?
• Traceroute program: provides delay
measurement from source to router along
end-end Internet path towards destination.
For all i:
sends three packets that will reach router i
on path towards destination
router i will return packets to sender
sender times interval between
transmission and reply.
3 probes 3 probes
3 probes
65
Packet loss
• queue (buffer) preceding link in buffer has finite capacity

• packet arriving to full queue dropped (lost)
• lost packet may be retransmitted by previous node, by source end system, or not at all
buffer
(waiting area) packet being transmitted
A
B
packet arriving to
full buffer is lost
66
Quiz
i. Imagine the length of a cable is 2500 m. If the

speed of propagation in the cable is 200,000,000
m/sec, how long does it take for a bit to travel
from the beginning to the end of the network?
Ignore any delays in the equipment.
d=2500 m v=2x108 m/sec
Pt =d/v=2500/2x108=0.0000125 sec
ii. What is the transmission time of a packet sent by

a station if the length of the packet is 1 million
bytes and the bandwidth of the channel is 200
Kbps?
L=106 bytes=8x106 bits R=2x105 b/sec
67
Tt = L/R=8x106/2x105 =40 sec
Quiz
Calculate the end-to-end delay for the following figure given that the packet length of
1,500 Bytes, propagation speed of 2.5*108 m/s, the router processing delay is 5 ms, and the
queuing delay is neglected.
68

Lec 1 Introduction To Networks

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Introduction to Networks

Common Types of Networks Compare the characteristics of common types of

Reliable Networks Describe the four basic requirements of a reliable

 A computer network can be

Devices Media Networking

Physical addresses Network addresses Application addresses

Intermediary Network Devices

Intermediary Network Devices

Intermediary Network Devices

Intermediary Network Devices

• Suppose you are downloading an MP3 file of L= 32 million bits,

 The time needed to transfer the file is then 32 seconds.

for store-and-forward and processing delays as well as protocol issues.

• per-connection end-end throughput: min(R c,Rs,R/10)

10 connections (fairly) share backbone bottleneck link R bits/sec

2. NIC generates signals.

3. Passed among LAN devices.

4. Exit the local area (router).

The many interconnected devices worldwide are often

5. Bits are transmitted to devices that interconnect

6. Passed among local devices at the destination.

1- Classification based on Media

• Wired or Bound/Guided Media Network: • Wireless or Unbound/Unguided Media Network:

PAN (Personal Area Network) LAN(Local Area Network)

MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)

WAN (Wide Area Network)

connects LANs to form WAN.

SAN (Storage Area Network)

Based on management method, networks can be categorized to peer-to-peer

Based on management method, networks can be categorized to peer-to-peer

Network refers to how various nodes, devices, and connections on

Physical network topology

Logical network topology

 The configuration, or topology, of a network is key to determining its performance.

LAN Physical Topologies

LAN Physical Topologies

WAN Physical Topologies

3. Full Mesh WAN

Multicast is the networking technique of

There are three phases in circuit switching:

In modern circuit-switched networks, electronic signals pass through several switches

Circuit Switching Advantages

• Circuit is dedicated to the call – no interference, no sharing

Circuit Switching Disadvantages

• Inefficient – the equipment may be unused for a lot of the call;

Packet Switching Advantages

• Bandwidth used to full potential

Packet Switching Disadvantages

• Under heavy use there can be a delay

Circuit Switched Packet Switched

Dedicated Circuit Shared Circuit

Guaranteed level of service

Inefficient use of Medium Efficient use of Medium

Single path, no redundancy Fault Tolerant, multiple possible paths

Communication Integrity: Ensure Confidentiality:

Network security is an integral part of networking regardless of the size of the

Threat vectors might be external or internal.

As a packet travels from one node (host or router) to the