Agitation and Mixing of Liquids

Dr. Zaib Jahan

Agitation Vs Mixing

• In process industries many operations are dependent on effective

agitation and mixing of fluids.
• Agitation refers to forcing a fluid by mechanical means to flow in a
circulatory or other pattern inside a vessel.
• Mixing usually implies the blending of two or more separate phases,
such as a fluid and a powdered solid, or two fluids, and causing them
to be randomly distributed through one another.
Agitation
Purpose of Agitation
Liquids are agitated for a number of purposes, depending on the
objectives of the processing step. These purposes include:
• Suspending solid particles

• Blending miscible liquids

• Dispersing a gas through a liquid in the form of small bubbles

• Dispersing a second liquid, immiscible with the first, to form an emulsion or

suspension of fine drops
• Promoting heat transfer between the liquid and a coil or jacket
Agitation Equipment
• Tank or vessel is usually cylindrical.
• The top of the vessel may be open to the air or
closed.
• The tank bottom is rounded not flat to eliminate
sharp corners.
• The liquid depth is approximately equal to the
diameter of the tank.
• An impeller is mounted on an overhung shaft.
• The shaft is driven by a motor.
• Accessories such as inlet and outlet lines,
coils, jackets and well thermometers are Figure 1: Typical Agitation Process Vessel
usually included.
Impellers

• Impellers are divided into two major classes

 Axial Flow Impellers (These generates current parallel with the axis of impeller shaft)

 Radial Flow Impellers (These generate currents in tangential or radial directions)

• Following are the three main types of impellers

 Propellers

 Paddles

 Turbines

There are also various other subtypes of impellers but the above mentioned three
types solves perhaps 95% of all liquid agitated problems
Figure 2: Radial Flow Impeller (a) Side view Figure 3: Axial Flow Impeller (a) Side view (b)
(b) Bottom view Bottom view
Propellers
• It is an axial flow, high speed impeller for liquids of low viscosity.

• Smaller propellers runs at either 1150 or 1750 rev/min and larger ones can run at 400 to 800 rev/min.

• The flow currents leaving the impeller continue through the liquid in a given direction until deflected by

floor or wall of the vessel. The propeller blades vigorously cut or shear the liquid.

• A revolving propeller traces out a Helix in the fluid.

• One full revolution of propeller (provided no slip between liquid and Propeller) would move the liquid

longitudinally a fixed distance depending on the Angle of inclination of propeller blades. The ratio of

this distance to propeller diameter is known as Pitch of blade. A Propeller blade with pitch 1 is called

square Pitch.
Propellers

• Propellers rarely exceed 18 in. in diameter.

• Sometimes two propellers work in opposite directions or in “push-pull” to create

highly turbulent zone.

• In deep tank, two or more may be mounted on the same shaft

• Propellers are used when strong vertical currents are desired e.g. when heavy

solid particles are to be kept in suspension.

• They are not ordinarily used when viscosity of liquid is greater than 50P.
Paddles

• Agitator consists of flat paddle turning on vertical shaft.

• They pushed the liquid radially and tangentially with almost no vertical motion at

impeller unless blades are Pitched.

• The currents they generates travel outward to the vessel wall and then either

upward or downward.

• In deep tanks several paddles are mounted one above the other on the same

shaft.
Paddles

• Anchors are useful for preventing deposits on a heat transfer surfaces (as in a jacketed

processes) but they are poor mixers.

• Industrial paddle agitators turn at speeds between 20 and 150 rev/min

• The total length of paddle impeller is typically 50 to 80percent of inside diameter of

vessel.

• Width of blade is one-sixth to one-tenth its length.

• Slow speed paddles gives mild agitation and can work in an unbaffled tanks but at higher

speeds baffles become necessary

Turbines
• They resembles multi bladed paddle agitators with short blades, turning at high speeds on
a shaft mounted centrally in the vessel.

• Blades may be straight or curved, pitched or vertical.

• Diameter of impeller turbine is smaller than with paddles, ranging from 30 to 50% of
vessel diameter.

• In low viscosity liquids turbines generate strong currents that persist throughout the
vessel, seeking ot and destroying stagnant pockets.

• Near the impeller is a zone of rapid currents, high turbulence and intense shear.

• The principal currents generated by turbines are radial and tangential (the tangential
component induces vortexing and swirling which must be stopped by baffles).
Figure 4: Mixing Impellers (a) three-blade marine propeller; (b) open straight-blade turbine; (c) bladed disk
turbine (d) vertical curved-blade turbine (e) pitched-blade turbine
Flow Pattern in Agitated Vessels
• The Flow Pattern in agitated vessels depends on the following factors
 Type of Impeller

 Characteristics of the fluid

 Size and proportions of the tank

 Baffles

 Agitator

• The velocity of the fluid at any point in the tank has three components and overall flow
pattern in the tank depends on the variations in these three components.
 Radial Component (It acts in a direction perpendicular to the shaft of the impeller)

 Longitudinal Component (It acts in a direction parallel with the shaft)

 Tangential / Rotational Component (It acts in a direction tangent to a circular path around the shaft)
Vertically Mounted Shaft

• Radial and Tangential components are in

horizontal plane

• Longitudinal component is in vertical plane

• Radial and longitudinal are useful for

mixing action

• Tangential component is generally

disadvantageous when shaft is vertically
Figure 5: Swirling flow pattern with a radial-
mounted. flow turbine in an unbaffled vessel
Vertically Mounted Shaft
• Tangential component follows a circular path around the shaft and creates a vortex in the

liquid.

• If the solid particles are present in the liquid, circulatory currents tends to throw the particles

to the outside by centrifugal force and they move downward and to the Centre of the tank at

the bottom.

• In an un baffled vessel circulatory flow is induced by all types of impellers i.e. axial or radial

• For strong swirling, flow pattern is same regardless of design of Impeller and at high speed

the vortex may be so deep to reach at the impeller surface.

Prevention of Swirling
• Swirling or circulatory flow can be prevented by any of three ways

 In small tanks the impeller can be mounted off center (shaft is moved away from center then tilted in a plane

perpendicular to the direction of move).

 In Large tanks, the agitator may be mounted in the side of the tank with shaft in horizontal plane but at an angle

with radius.

 In large tanks with vertical agitators, swirling can be prevented by installing baffles.

 Four baffles are sufficient to prevent swirling and vortex formation (Even two have a strong effect on swirling

effect).

• For turbines width of baffle need be no more than one-tweflth of vessel diameter and for propellers

no more than one eighteenth of tank diameter.

• No baffles are required for side entering, inclined or off center propellers
Figure 6: Flow pattern with (a) Centre Propeller; (b) Centre propeller with baffles; (c) off-centre propeller
Draft Tube

• Draft tube is a cylindrical duct slightly larger than the impeller diameter and is

positioned around the impeller

• Used with axial impellers to direct the suction and discharge flows.

• The impeller draft tube system acts as a low efficiency axial flow pump

• The top to bottom circulation flow is of significance for flow-controlled processes,

suspension of solids and dispersion of gases.

• They are particularly useful for tall vessels having large ratio of height to diameter.
Figure 7: Draft tubes, baffled tank: (a) turbine; (b) propeller
"Standard" Turbine Design

Figure 8: Measurements of turbine

Circulation, Velocities and Power Consumption in
Agitated Vessels
 Circulation, Velocities and Power Consumption
• For effective processing vessel, the volume of fluid circulated by impeller must
be great enough to sweep out entire vessel.
• Velocity of the stream leaving the impeller must be sufficient to carry the current to
extreme zones of the tank.
• In mixing and dispersion operations, not only circulation rate is important
but turbulence in moving stream governs the effectiveness of operation.
• Turbulence results in large velocity gradients and properly directed currents in the
liquid.
• Flow rate and power dissipation increase with stirrer speed, selection of the type and
size of impeller influences the relative values of flow rate and power dissipation.
• Large impellers are used to promote flow and small impellers are used for intense
turbulence at high speed.
Flow Number
• A turbine or propeller agitator is a pump impeller operating
without a casing and with undirected inlet and output
flows.
• The governing relations for turbines are similar to those for
centrifugal pumps.
• Assume that a tangential liquid velocity is some fraction k
of the blade tip velocity, or
V’u2 = ku2 = kπDan (1)

Where
V’u2 = Actual tangential velocity of liquid leaving the blade
tips
V’r2 = Radial velocity of liquid leaving the blade tips
u2 = velocity of the blade tips Figure 9: Velocity vectors at tip of
V’2 = Total velocity of the liquid leaving the blade tips turbine impeller blade
n = Rotational speed r/s
• Volumetric flow rate through the impeller is:

q = V’r2 Ap (2)

Where Ap is the area of cylinder swept out by the tips of the impeller
blades, Da is the impeller diameter and W is the width of blades:

Ap = πDaW (3) Fig. 2

• From geometry:

V’r2 = (u2 – V’u2) tan β’2 (4)

• Substitution from (1) gives:

Figure 10: Typical velocity profile of flow from a

V’r2 = πDa n (1 – k) tan β’2 (5) straight-blade turbine, showing definition of shear rate
Above Figure shows the velocity profile of liquid flowing radially from the blade of standard
turbine. Solving 2,3 and 4 volumetric flow rate comes out to be:

q = K π2D2anW(1 – k) tan β’2

Where K is a constant which describes that radial velocity is not constant over width of blade.

q is related to n and Da as

q ∝ nDa3
Ratio of the quantities is defined as Flow Number NQ

NQ = q/nDa3
NQ is constant for each type of impeller.
For standard flat blade turbine in a baffled vessel NQ is taken as 1.3
Velocity Patterns and Velocity Gradients

• As the fluid leaves the impeller blades, the radial

component of the velocity V’r at the centerline of the
impeller is about 0.6 times the tip speed u2.
• The radial velocity decreases with vertical distance
from centerline but the jet extends beyond the edge
of the blade because of entrainment.
• The entrained flow at this point is 25% of flow
coming directly from blades (qB = theoretical flow
leaving the impeller blades).
• As the jet travels away from impeller, it slows down
because of increased flow area and because more Figure 11: Radial Velocity Vr’ / u2 and volumetric
liquid is entrained. flow rate q/qb in a turbine agitated vessel
Velocity Patterns and Velocity Gradients
• Along the centerline, the velocity drops linearly with radial distance and the value of
V’rr is constant.
• The velocity gradient in agitated vessels vary widely from one point to another in the
fluid. The gradient is ΔV/Δy as shown in Fig.2.
• Gradient is large near the edge of jet leaving the impeller, since velocity is high and
jet is relatively narrow.
• Fig. 4 shows fluid currents observed with a six blade turbine, 6 in., in diameter with
200rpm in a 12 in. vessel containing cold water.
• Fluid leaves the impeller in radial direction, separates into longitudinal streams
flowing upward or downward over the baffle, flows inwards towards the impeller
shaft and then returns to impeller intake.
Velocity Patterns and Velocity Gradients
• The numbers in Fig.4 indicate the scalar magnitude of the
fluid velocity at various points as fraction of the velocity of
the tip of impeller blade.
• Increasing the impeller speed increases the tip velocity and
the circulation rate.
• It does not increase the fluid velocity at a given location in
the same proportion, for a fast moving jet entrains much
more material from liquid bulk then a slow moving jet does.
• The jet velocity drops very quickly with increasing distance
from the impeller.
• With pseudoplastic liquids, a turbine may give local region
of high shear rate around the impeller, but near the wall
shear rate is much lower and apparent viscosity may be
much higher. Figure 12: Velocity Patterns in turbine
agitator
Power Consumption
The important consideration in the design of an agitated vessel is the power required to
drive the impeller. When flow is turbulent in the tank the flow can be obtained by “q” and
“Ek ” per unit volume of fluid

“q” can be obtained from flow number

“Ek ” per unit volume of fluid is equal to following

Power Consumption
Where V2 is slightly smaller than the tip speed u2 .

The ratio of . And we know and the power requirement is

In Dimensionless form:

The left hand side is the “Power Number Np”

Power Correlation
Power required to rotate a given impeller, the empirical correlations of power with other variables of the system are needed.
These can be represented in dimensionless form and are listed out as follows;
• Measurement of tank and Impeller
• Distance of the impeller from the tank floor
• The liquid depth
• Dimensions of the baffles
• Number and arrangement of the baffles
• Number of blades in the impeller
• The viscosity and density of the fluid
• Speed of agitator
• Dimensionless constant gc (because newton’s law is applicable)
• Absence / Presence of swirling and vortex
• Acceleration due to gravity when the liquid is lifted up (due to agitation) from certain average height

Various linear measurements can all be converted to dimensionless ratios, called “shape factors”, by dividing each of them
by one of their number which is arbitrarily chosen as a basis. Diameter of tank , Dt , or the diameter of impeller, Da , are the
suitable choices for the base measurement.
Let the shape factors, so defined, be denoted by S1 , S2 , S3 , ……………Sn . (the diameter of the impeller, Da , is taken as base
measurement.

Two mixers of the same geometrical proportions throughout but of different sizes will have identical shape factors but will differ
in magnitude of Da . Devices meeting these requirements are called geometrically similar.

Power Number Functionality for Newtonian fluid

When shape factors are temporarily ignored and liquid is Newtonian, the power of agitated vessel is a function of following
variables

Application of Dimensionless analysis gives the following dimensionless groups

By considering the shape factors, the power number functionality would include the following
Significance of Dimensionless Groups
• Reynolds's number

 Where, Impeller tip speed = u2 = nπDa

 This Reynolds's number calculated from the diameter and peripheral speed of impeller.

• Power number
 It’s the ratio of drag force acting on a unit area of impeller and the inertial stresses.
 It is analogous to a friction factor or a drag coefficient

• Froude Number
 It’s the ratio of the inertial stress to the gravitational force per unit area acting on the fluid.
 It appears in the fluid dynamic situations where there is significant wave motion on a liquid surface.
 It is used to study the vortex motion during scale up of mixer.

• Flow number
 It is used to find the pumping rate of the impeller
Power Correlations for Specific Impellers
• To know the effect of geometry on the
power requirement, the engineer should
specify:
 All shape factors
 No. of baffles
 No. of impeller blades
 Pitch of impeller and number of
blades (for propeller)
• Baffled Tanks
 Typical plots of NRe vs NP for baffled
tanks fitted with centrally located
flat-bladed turbines with six blades
are shown in figure 9.12.
 Curve A: Vertical blades with S4 = 0.2
 Curve B: similar impeller with
narrower blades (S4=0.125)
 Curve C: For pitched blades turbine
Power Correlations for Specific Impellers

• Baffled Tanks

 Typical plots of NRe vs NP for baffled

tanks fitted with with three blades
propellers are shown in figure 9.13.

 Curve A: Three blade propeller

centrally mounted in a baffle tank.

 Propellers and pitched blade

turbines draw considerably less
power than a turbine with vertical
blades
Power Correlations for Specific Impellers
• UnBaffled Tanks

 At low Reynolds number (below 300), the power curves for baffled and un-baffled tanks are identical

 In this region the Reynolds's number, generally avoided in practice in un-baffled tanks, a vortex forms and
Froude number has an effect.

 Power number can be modified as follows:

 For given set of shape factors, the ‘m’ can be related to

Reynolds's number by following equation

 Here the constants a and b are given in table 9.1

Effect of System Geometry
• Decreasing S1 (impeller diameter to tank diameter) increases Np when baffles are few and narrow and

decreases Np when baffles are many and wider.

• With four baffles and S5 (baffle diameter to vessel diameter) set equal to 1/12, changing S1 has almost no

effect on the Np .
• With S2 (height of impeller to diameter of tank)

increases Np increases for disk turbine and decreases

considerably for pitched blades turbine.

• For straight blade open turbine, the effect of changing

S4 (Impeller width to diameter of Impeller) depends on

number of blades. For six blade S4 is directly

proportional to Np but for four blade turbine Np

Effect of System Geometry
• With pitched blade turbine the effect of blade width on power consumption is much smaller than with
straight blade turbines.

• Two straight blade turbines on the same shaft draw about 1.9 times as much power as one turbine alone,
provided the spacing the two impellers is at least equal to the impeller diameter. Two closely spaced
turbines may draw as much as 2.4 times as much power as a single turbine.

• The shape of the tank has little effect on the Np. The power consumed by horizontal cylindrical vessels is
same as in a vertical vessel for both baffled or unbaffled.
Calculation of Power Consumption
• The Power delivered to the liquid is given by:

• At low NRe, the lines of NP versus NRe for both baffled and unbaffled tanks coincide, and the slope of the
line on logarithmic coordinates is -1. Therefore

⟹
• These above two equations can be used when NRe is less than 10.

• In baffled tanks at NRe larger than about 10000, the power number is independent of the Reynolds
number and viscosity is not a factor. The above equation becomes:
Power Consumption in Non-Newtonian Liquids
• The Power number remains same in the case of non-Newtonian liquids:

• The Reynolds no is not easily defined, since the apparent viscosity of the fluid varies with the shear
rate and the shear rate changes considerably from one point to another point in the vessel.

• For power law fluid the apparent viscosity is related to average shear rate by equation:
Power Consumption in Non-Newtonian Liquids

• For pseudoplastic liquids the average

shear rate in the vessel is directly related
to impeller speed:

• Combining the above 2 equations we get:

• Figure 9.14 shows the Power number –

Reynold number correlation for a six blade
turbine impeller in pseudoplastic fluids
Types of Agitators
Paddle Agitator
• It consist of two flat paddle-shaped impeller blades extending to
reach the tank walls. They are used if no extensive axial and radial
flow is required.

• These impellers can produce a laminar low shear flow and are used
for low viscosity liquid mixing, crystallization, dissolution, and heat
transfer.

• They are typically operated at low speeds and predominantly give a

tangential flow pattern. Secondary blades can be installed on the
paddle blades to enhance the mixing of more viscous materials.

• The impeller blades are inclined from the plane of rotation to create
an axial flow pattern. This variation of paddle agitator is typically used
for homogenizing suspensions.
Anchor Agitator
• Anchor agitators have impellers that resemble the shape of an anchor.
They typically have a U-shape that matches the contour of the tank.

• They generate a predominantly tangential flow pattern, but angled

blades can be incorporated on their horizontal supports to create an
axial flow.

• Anchor agitators are used for blending and heat transfer of highly
viscous liquids. Their impellers generate a laminar low-shear flow;
hence, they are used to mix shear-sensitive media.

• Anchor agitators are considered the most economical laminar flow

agitator. They are suitable for tanks with rounded or conical bottoms.
The impeller can be designed to have a low clearance with the tank
wall.
Propeller Agitator
• They mainly produce an axial flow pattern, though tangential flow can also
be produced. The fluid is displaced and accelerated longitudinally after the
impeller blades draw it.

• The deflection of the fluid depends on the inclination of the impeller

blades. The impeller blades are tapered towards the shaft to minimize
centrifugal force and maximize axial flow.

• They are operated at medium to high speeds.They are used in

homogenization, dispersion, and suspension of low viscosity products.
They are used in solid-liquid suspension systems and chemical reactors to
prevent solids settling at the tank bottom.

• They may be installed in unbaffled tanks when the propeller is inclined

vertically from the centerline or in an off-center position.
 Screw Agitator

• Screw impellers are close clearance impellers with a helical

flight directly attached to the impeller shaft.

• They provide an excellent top-to-bottom turnover.

• They are used in blending high viscosity and shear-sensitive

media.

• They have to be used in addition to other agitators.

• They are mostly used in food processing

Helical Ribbon Agitator

• Helical ribbon agitators have a helical impeller blade fixed in the

shaft by rods. These impellers are an alternative to anchor
impellers which can generate laminar flow.

• These agitators create an axial flow pattern. They generally have a

higher fluid contact area to mix fluids with higher viscosities.

• Double helical ribbon agitators are designed to have two helical

blade flights running through the shaft in opposite directions. The
additional flight enhances the mixing of more viscous fluids.

• These impellers are also used in heat transfer applications and are
considered the best high viscosity laminar flow impeller. The
impeller can also be designed to have a low clearance with the
tank wall.
Turbine Agitators
• Turbine agitators are an intermediate between propeller and paddle agitators. They usually have larger diameters
than propeller agitators. These agitators combine centrifugal and rotational motion.

• They are used in emulsification and dispersion processes in which the media is required to flow at high speeds.
They offer a good balance between flow and shear. They are typically operated at high speeds. They can handle a
wide range of material viscosities and still provide a high mixing efficiency.

• Straight Blade Turbine Impellers:

Straight blade turbine impellers consist of two to eight

flat vertical blades. These turbine impellers generate a
radial flow pattern and high shear. They are used in
solid suspension systems, heat transfer applications,
and moving solutes from the bottom of the tank.
• Pitched Blade Turbine Impellers:

Pitched blade turbine impellers have flat angled blades. The most
common type is a four-blade turbine that makes a 450 angle with
the vertical. They provide a combination of axial and radial flow; the
axial flow is more dominant than the latter. They generate high shear
and have good mixing efficiency. They are used in gas dispersions
and solid suspensions.
• Curved Blade Turbine Impellers:

Curved blade turbine impellers, also known as sweptback turbine

impellers, consist of curved blades mounted vertically to the central
hub. These impellers also produce a radial flow pattern. They have a
lower power requirement and produce less shear compared to flat
blade turbine impellers. They are used in low level mixing, solid
suspension systems, and heat transfer.
• Rushton Turbine Impellers:

Rushton turbine impellers consist of flat vertical impeller blades

arranged symmetrically around the circumference of a horizontal disc.
These impellers generate a radial flow pattern. Rushton turbine
impellers are effective for gas dispersion applications. The gas is
sparged and captured below the rotating disc and then diverted in high
turbulent regions near the blades. They can also be used in gas-liquid
contacting and mixing.
• Smith Turbine Impellers:

Smith turbine impeller is a variation of a Rushton turbine impeller, in

which semi-circular or curved blades are attached instead of flat
blades. This impeller is designed for gas-gas and gas-liquid dispersions
and emulsions. It has a lower power requirement and larger gassing
duty before flooding than Rushton turbine impellers.
Comparison
Agitator Type Applications Advantages Disadvantages
Paddle • Mixing of solids • Heavy duty • Power consumption is
• Slurry mixing • Apt for slow operation very high
• Used during crystals • Can have two or four • Inefficient mixing
forming phase during blades
super saturated cooling
Anchor • Highly used in • Increase possible heat • Required high efficiency
Pharmaceutical industry transfer rate in reactors, Gear box
for several operations from reactor heat • Required high Power
transfer surface to mass
Propeller • Suitable for GLR’s, • Will increase the • Need to be operated at
ANFD’s, can handle homogeneity high speedto avoid solid
corrosive materials with • Can be used in two settlings in reactors.
glass lining. different patterns for • Need to be operated at
drying and pressing low speeds in drying
operations
Comparison
Agitator Type Applications Advantages Disadvantages
Screw • Have to be used in • Uniform mixing of high • Not preffered for
addition to other viscous masses immiscible solvents
agitators
• Mostly used in food
processing
Helical • Most probably used in • Can handle visco • Low possibility for radial
paint industry elasticliquids efficiently mixing
Turbine • Liquids and gas • Generates high radial • Not preffered for
• Straight Blade reactions flow solvents with high
• Pitched Blade • Highly used during • Highly used for viscosity [NMT 20P]
• Curved Blade reaction and extraction dispersion operations
• Smith operations
• Rushton
Agitators with Retreat Curve Impellers
• Retreat curve impellers consist of three curved blades with rounded
edges and corners that can be easily coated with glass material. The
glass coating can prevent corrosion and contamination, critical in the
food, beverage, and pharmaceutical industries.

• Retreat curve impellers primarily create a radial flow pattern; the

axial flow depends on the diameter ratio and the clearance of the
impeller from the tank bottom.

• Retreat curve impellers are used in achieving uniform dispersion in

solid-liquid and slurry media.

• The rounded corners can prevent turbulence and generate low shear,
making them suitable for shear-sensitive media. These impellers
typically operate at low speeds.
Agitators with Hydrofoil Impellers
• Hydrofoil impellers are composed of two to four
narrow tapered and cambered blades. The three-
blade configuration is the most common in
industries. Their blade angle increases from the tip
to the hub.

• Their blade angle increases from the tip to the hub.

These impellers generate an axial flow pattern.
Hydrofoil impellers maximize the fluid flow while
producing a low shear rate and consuming the least
energy, making them more efficient than pitched
blade impellers. Hydrofoil impellers are more
economical than propellers when used in tanks with
large diameters.
• Standard Hydrofoil Impeller
 Standard hydrofoil impellers are used in mixing, suspension, and flocculation systems involving
low viscosity fluids.
 They are also used in shear-sensitive media such as high-biomass slurry.
• Wide Blade Hydrofoil Impeller
 Wide blade hydrofoil impellers have a higher solidity ratio compared to standard hydrofoils. The
solidarity ratio refers to the ratio of the total blade area to the area of the circle circumscribing
the impeller.
 These hydrofoil impellers are suitable for gas-liquid dispersions due to their large contacting area.
 The power requirement for these impellers is higher than standard hydrofoil impellers. However,
the power requirement of a pitched blade impeller is still greater.
Agitators with Dispersion Blade Impellers
• Dispersion blade impellers consist of a disc with sharp outer blades or
teeth at its edges which break down agglomerations of solids and
viscous liquids into fine particles.

• The sawtooth design is common in industries. The outer blades

sharpen through use because of their abrasion with the media.

• These impellers are operated at high speeds to achieve high shear

and turbulent flow. Dispersion blade impellers are typically made of
hard metals such as carbide and stainless steel.

• Dispersion blade impellers are commonly used in solid-liquid or

liquid-liquid dispersion. They are used in dispersing pigments in a
viscous paint mixture. They are also used in emulsification and
grinding applications.
Agitators with Coil Impellers

• Coil impellers have springs that act as the impeller blades.

• They primarily create a radial flow pattern.

• The spring has high mechanical rigidity to overcome the resistance

given by the solids at the bottom of a suspension during mixing.

• These impellers are also used to prevent solids from settling at the
bottom of the tank.
Blending and Mixing
Blending and Mixing
• The flow patters of fluid velocity in agitated vessel are complex but definite and
reproducible. Power consumption is readily measured.

• The results of mixing studies are seldom high reproducible and depends in large
measure on how is mixing defined.

• Miscible liquids are blended in small process vessels by propellers or turbine

impellers.

• In process vessel, liquid is well agitated and blending is fairly rapid.

• In large storage tanks agitators may be idle and only turned on to blend the
stratified layers of liquid that were formed as the tank was filled.
Blending in process Vessels

• Impeller in a process vessel produces a high • For a standard six blade turbine:
velocity stream and the liquid is well mixed in
the region closed to impeller because of
intense turbulence.
• As the stream slows down while entraining
other liquid and flowing along the wall, there
is some radial mixing, as large eddies break
down to smaller ones, but there is little mixing
in direction of the flow.
Blending and Mixing
• Figure 9.15 shows the results for several
systems plotted as ntT versus NRe. For a

turbine with Da/Dt= 1/3 and Dt/H = 1 the

value of ntT is 36 for Nre compared with a

predicted value of 39.

• As shown in Fig. 9.15, the mixing time

using baffled turbines varies with about
the —1.5 power of the stirrer speed in
this region and then increases more
steeply as the Reynolds number is
reduced still further. The data in Fig. 9.15
are for certain ratios of impeller size to
 Blending and Mixing
• The mixing times are greater when 10<Re<1000,
even though power consumption is not much
different than for the turbulent range.

• Norwood and Metzner mixing time factor can be

rearranged to show how it differs from prediction
for turbulent regimes.

• Froude number implies vortex effect, which may be present at low Rebut it is doubtful whether it should be
used for baffles tank at high Re.
Stratified Blending in Storage Tanks
• For effective blending in large tanks a side entering propeller must be oriented precisely with regard to its
angles. (80-83O angle it makes with tangent to the tank wall at point of entry).

• Time required for blending depends on circulation and on the rate of erosion os the interface between the
stratified liquid layers.

Jet Mixers
• Jets are set in clusters at several locations

in a tank. The stream from a jet maintains its

identity for some distance and flows at high

velocity in stagnant pool of same liquid.

• The velocity in the jet issuing from nozzle is uniform and constant. It remains so in a core, the area of which
decreases with distance from nozzle.

• The core is surrounded by an expanding turbulent jet ,in which radial velocity decreases with distance from the
centerline of the jet.

• The shrinking core disappears at a distance from nozzle of 4.3Dj (Dj = diameter of nozzle).

• The turbulent jet maintains its integrity but its velocity steadily decreases. The radial decrease in velocity in the
jet causes pressure increase according to Bernoulli Principle.

• Fluid flows into the jet and is absorbed, accelerated and blended into the augmented jet. The process is called
entrainment. The equation applied for distance greater than 4.3D j is:

qe = volume of liquid entrained per unit time at distance X from nozzle

qo = volume of liquid leaving jet nozzle per unit time

Motionless/Static Mixers
• Gases and non-viscous liquids can be blended
by passing them together through a length of
open pipe or a pipe with orifice plates or
segmented baffles.

• Normal conditions require pipe length as short

as 5-10 pipe diameters but 50-100 pipe
diameters is recommended.

• Difficult mixing tasks are completed by

motionless mixers in which stationary elements
successively divide and recombine portions of
fluid stream.
Motionless/Static Mixers
• In the figure each short helical element divides the stream in two, gives it 180 O twist
and delivers it to the succeeding element which is set at 90O to the trailing edge of first
element.
• The second element divides the already divided stream and twists it 180O in the
opposite direction.
• For laminar flow pressure drop is typically 4 times as large as in same length of empty
pipe.
• For turbulent flow pressure drop may be 10-100 times greater because of kinetic
energy loss after each change in direction.
• Static mixers are used for liquid blending, gas and liquid dispersion, chemical reaction
and heat transfer.
Mixer Selection
• No direct relation between power consumed and degree of mixing.

• When a low viscosity liquid is swirled about in an unbaffled vessel little or no mixing
will occur regardless of power supplied.

• If baffles are added, rapid mixing occurs, a large fraction of energy is used for mixing,
and less for circulation.

• Best mixer is one that mixes in required time with least power consumption.

• For mixing reagents in a feed tank or blending product from different batches in a
storage tank, a small mixer might be used, even if several minutes are required for
complete mixing.
Problems of Mixing
• Suspension of solids
 Mixing of sugar in water /coffee (SG of sugar=1.58 and in water SG of sugar =1)

 Dissolution rate is increased by turbulence

 Increase exposed suspended area and increase flow of fluid over the solid surface

 If upward local velocity is greater than the terminal velocity of particle then the suspension will be
practically complete

• Mixing in pipes
 Sometimes we wish to blend the fluids by flowing then together in a pipe

 Other times we don’t want the fluids to mix in a pipe

• Dispersion of solids
 Paint pigment

 The solids be uniformly distributed throughout the liquid

 Paint is dispersion of about 0.001 to 5 micron in diameter opaque particles with specific gravity of 4
( settling on storage is big problem)
 Rehology of liquid part has been improved over the years to overcome this problem

• Atmospheric or Oceanic Dispersion

 Mixing of smoke streams in atmosphere

 Mixing of waste water from industry in rivers

• Blending of miscible liquids
 Example 1: Mixing of cream in coffee is example of blending ( always two liquids mix to form a new
liquid with no perceptible differences in concentration from point to point.
 Example 2: blending of various liquids of different octane number to obtain gasoline the mixing
uniformity is required at the level of each droplet.
 For low viscous liquids blending/mixing is done by turbulence

 For high viscous liquids the mixing is accomplished by repeatedly dragging a layer of one liquid through
another.

• Blending of solids
 If the mixed solids have different densities or sizes they can be separated out after mixing on basis of
gravity or screens or by simple shaking
• Molecular mixing
 For many chemical processes particularly for combustion mixing must be done at molecular level

 This requires more energetic mixing

 In this kind of mixing we use turbulence to mix down to the size of the smallest eddy, and then rely on
the molecular diffusion to finish the job

• Emulsification
 Mayonnaise, cold cream, salad dressings, homogenized milks, tooth paste

 consist of two immiscible liquids that have been intimately mixed by a higher intensity mixer and
whose dispersed droplets don't coalesce, often because the mixture contains a surface-active
emulsifier that prevent coalescence.
Suspension of Solid Particles
Suspension of Solid Particles
• When solids are suspended in an agitated tank, there are several ways to define the condition of
suspension. Different processes require different degrees of suspension, and it is important to use the
appropriate definition and correlation in a design or scaleup problem. The degrees of suspension are
given below in the order of increasing uniformity of suspension and increasing power input.

• Nearly complete suspension with filleting: Most of the solid is suspended in the liquid, with a few
percent in stationary fillets of solid at the outside periphery of the bottom or at other places in the tank.
Having a small amount of solids not in motion may be permissible in a feed tank to a processing unit, as
long as the fillets do not grow and the solids do not cake. For crystallization or a chemical reaction, the
presence of fillets would be undesirable.

• Complete particle motion: All the particles are either suspended or are moving along the tank bottom.
Particles moving on the bottom have a much lower mass-transfer coefficient than suspended particles,
which might affect the performance of the unit.
Suspension of Solid Particles
• Complete suspension or complete off-bottom suspension: All the particles are suspended off the tank
bottom or do not stay on the bottom more than 1 or 2s. When this condition is just reached, there will
generally be concentration gradients in the suspension and there may be a region of clear liquid near the
top of the tank. The gradient in solid concentration will have little effect on the performance of the unit
as a dissolver or a chemical reactor, and the mass-transfer coefficient will not increase very much with
further increases in stirrer speed.

• Uniform suspension: At stirrer speeds considerably above those needed for complete suspension, there
is no longer any clear liquid near the top of the tank, and the suspension appears uniform. However,
there may still be vertical concentration gradients, particularly if the solids have a wide size distribution,
and care is needed in getting a representative sample from the tank.
Suspension of Solid Particles

• where n = critical stirrer speed

• Da = agitator diameter

• S = shape factor

• v = kinematic viscosity

• DP = average particle size

• g = gravitational acceleration

• = density difference

• = liquid density

• B = 100 × weight of solid/weight of liquid

Dispersion Operations
Dispersion Operations
• No direct relation between power consumed and degree of mixing.

• When a low viscosity liquid is swirled about in an unbaffled vessel little or no mixing
will occur regardless of power supplied.

• If baffles are added, rapid mixing occurs, a large fraction of energy is used for mixing,
and less for circulation.

• Best mixer is one that mixes in required time with least power consumption.

• For mixing reagents in a feed tank or blending product from different batches in a
storage tank, a small mixer might be used, even if several minutes are required for
complete mixing.
Characteristics of Dispersed Phase, Mean Diameter
• If the total volume of the dispersion is taken as unity, the volume of dispersed phase by
definition is . Let the number of drops or bubbles in this volume be N. Then if all the drops were
spheres of diameter DP, their total volume would be given by:

(1)

• Total surface area of the drops (2)

• Dividing (1) by (2) we get:

• Actually the drops differ in size and are not spherical. For given values of a and the “volume-
surface mean diameter” or “Sauter mean diameter” is defined as:
Gas Dispersion, Bubble Behavior
• In a quiescent liquid a single bubble issuing from a submerged circular orifice will be a sphere if
the flow rate is small. The net buoyant force on the bubble to the opposing drag force at the
edge of the orifice is given by:

• Where = Density of Liquid

= Density of vapor

Fb = Total Buoyant force

Fg = Force of gravity
Gas Dispersion, Bubble Behavior

• The drag force FD is:

• Where Do = Orifice diameter

= Interfacial tension

• When the bubble becomes large enough, the opposing forces becomes equal and the bubble is
detached from the orifice. The bubble diameter can be found by combining above two
equations:
 Gas Dispersion in Agitated Vessels
• For low gas holdups ( the following dimensional equations are available for gas dispersion in pure liquids by a six
blade turbine impeller. The average bubble diameter in millimeters is given by:

• The average bubble diameter does not change much with stirrer speed and is usually in the range 2 to 5 mm.
Smaller bubbles are formed in the high-shear region near the tip of the impeller, but they coalesce rapidly, and
the average size is determined by the balance between coalescence and breakup in the rest of the tank. The
interfacial area can be calculated from the average bubble size and the holdup or from the following equation,
where a' is in mm-1:
Gas Dispersion in Agitated Vessels
• where Vs = superficial velocity of gas

ut = bubble rise velocity in stagnant liquid

• The above equation underestimates the area in mixing vessels operated at high impeller Reynolds numbers,
because additional gas is drawn into the liquid by surface aeration. Combining equations leads to the following
dimensional equation for gas holdup:

• In above equations all quantities involving the dimension of length are in millimeters.

• The terminal velocity does not change much with diameter for bubbles larger than 1 mm, and a value of 0.2 m/s
can be used for gases in water or similar pure liquids. For air bubbles in electrolyte solutions, coalescence is
greatly retarded, and the average bubble size can be much less than in pure water, with corresponding increases
in interfacial area and gas holdup.
Scaleup of Agitator Design
• For scaleup generalized correlation are available that link power number to Re and mixing
time factor.

• For other problems adequate correlations are not available and these situations various
methods of scaleup have been proposed based on geometrical similarity between lab and
plant equipment.

• Even if geometrical similarity is possible, dynamic and kinematic similarity are not.

• Therefore scaleup is not always predictable.

• Power consumption in large vessels can be accurately predicted from curves of N p and Re.

• These curves can be developed from pilot plant studies using small vessels of proposed
design.
Scaleup of Agitator Design
• In any mixer the amount of power consumed can be directly related to the rate of
solution of a gas or the rate of certain reactions, such as oxidation, that depends on the
intimacy of contact of one phase with another.

• The optimum ratio of impeller diameter to vessel diameter for a given power input is
an important factor in scaleup.

• This ratio is affected by nature of agitation problem; as for some purposes the impeller
should be small relative to size of vessel and for others it should be large.

• In any given operation, power input is kept constant, the smaller the impeller, the
higher the impeller speed.
Scaleup of Agitator Design
• Operations that depend on large velocity gradients, rather than on high circulation
rates are best accompanied by small, high speed impellers, as in the case in the
dispersion of gases.

• For operations that depend on high circulation rates rather than steep velocity
gradients, a large slow moving impeller should be used.

• Blending times are usually much shorter in small vessels than in large ones. It is
impractical to make same blending times in different sized vessels.

• Achieving same blending times in full scale unit as in pilot plant is impractical but a
moderate increase in blending time in the larger vessel reduces power requirement to
a reasonable level.
Types of Mixers
Types of Mixers
• The selection of a mixer is predicated on how it will be used and the kind of chemicals, liquids, gases,
granules, and pellets that will be combined.

• The three general categories of mixers are diffusing, shearing, and convection, each of which has a
different construction, types of impellers, speed, and function.

• Convective mixing - During convective mixing transfer of groups of particles in bulk take place from one
part of powder bed to another. Convective mixing is referred to as macromixing.

• Shear mixing - During shear mixing, shear forces are created within the mass of the material by using
agitator arm or a blast of air.

• Diffusive mixing - During this mixing, the materials are tilted so that the gravitational forces cause the
upper layers to slip and diffusion of individual particles take place over newly developed surfaces.
Diffusion is also sometimes referred to as micromixing.
Tumbler Mixers
• Tumbler mixers are diffusion mixers that rotate to mix materials and include air in the mixing process.

• They have a tumbling rhythm and do not use impellers as part of the mixing process. Tumbler mixers are
used to mix solids and powders and, in special cases, liquids.

• Solids are rotated by the tumbler as if they are being stirred as gravity is constantly pulling the mixture
back to the bottom of the drum.

• Basic parts used are metallic vessels in which powder is mixed, an electric motor for the rotation of the
vessel, and also baffles which helps in the mixing of the powders.

• Tumblers typically operate at speed of 5 - 25 rpm and have capacities of 150 - 200 ft³. They can be filled
to about 75% of their maximum capacity.
Tumbler Mixers
• The advantages of this technology are the elimination of a transfer step from blender to container and
the elimination of a cleaning step between different batches.

• Since the process is all occurring within one container, force that could potentially cause segregation of
the mixture is also greatly reduced.

• Used for the mixing powder, Granule, lubricant additive, binder, essence oil of flavor of western
medicine, Chinese medicine and health food.

• It is also used chemical - technical industry, drug and dye works, Food and luxury food industry as well as
textile and leather industry.

• The configurations of tumbler mixers include octagonal, cone, and V shape.

• Twin Shell or V shaped Mixer:
 The V-blender, consists of two hollow cylindrical vessels that are joined at an angle of 75° to 90°
which is mounted on trunnion to allow it to tumble.
 The free fall of the material within the vessel, and the repetitive converging and diverging motion,
coupled with increased frictional contact between the material and the vessel's long, straight sides
as the mixer tumbles, split the material and recombines them continuously results in a homogenized
blend.
 Removal of the blended material from the V-blender is normally through the apex port which is
fitted with a discharge tube.
 A V- blender can be modified by providing it with a high-speed intensifier bar also known as lump
breaker running through trunnion into the vessel along with spray pipes for liquid addition. This
modified v-blender is called V-Blender with intensifier bar.
• Double Cone Mixer
 The double cone blender is an efficient and multipurpose tumbler blender for mixing dry powders
and granules homogeneously.
 It is made of two conical shaped stainless vessels (available in different capacity ranging from 5 200
kg or even more) that are separated by a cylindrical section.
 It is mounted at the center of the container between two trunnions that allow the blender to turn
end over end.
 Double cone blender has no dead spots mixing and it is easily cleanly after use.

 Double cone blender is not a suitable choice of blender for very fine particles and particles with
greater particle size difference due to less shear.
• Cubical Mixer
 A cubic mixer is a tumbling mixer suitable for gentle blending of dense powders and granules. As the
name implies, it consists of a cube- shaped stainless container mounted in a titled manner at the
center of the container or hanged from the corner between two trunnions that allows it to rotate
about an axis.
 Mixing occurs by sliding of powders on its wall. Cubic blender gives mixing in three dimensions (3D)
when hanged from the corner.
 Despite the fact that corner blender gives mixing in three dimensions, the presence of different
corners makes it difficult to clean after use sliding action causes abrasion of particles. The above can
be said to be the advantages and disadvantages of using cube-shaped blenders as blending
equipment.
• Y Cone Mixer
 A Y cone blender can handle large volumes of materials and comes in various capacities ranging
from 45 liters to 3200 liters.
 Separately driven internal lump breakers can be provided for breaking of lumps and agglomerates.

 The design consist of two cylindrical cones welded together and fitted with shaft mounted on
bearings.
 The blender is rotated at slow RPM because of which the entire mass is tumbled along the angle of
the cone resulting in criss-crossing of the material to produce a uniform mix.
 Baffles are provided inside the cone for throughout mixing. It can handle large volumes and is easily
cleanable.
 Tumbler Mixers

V Shaped Mixer Double Cone Mixer

Cubical Mixer Y Cone Mixer

High Speed Mixers
• High speed mixers are typically used where a
substance needs to be cooled, granulated, or
dispersed to move it quickly and prepare it for the
next processing step.

• They can be used in industries like food processing,

pharmaceuticals, and paint production.

• The high speed mixers can be found in sizes and

shapes ranging from lab mixers which can be small
and high speed to industrial-sized high speed mixers. High Speed Mixer
 High Shear Mixers
• High shear mixers are used for solid and liquid materials for emulsification, homogenization, dispersion, particle size
reduction, and disintegration. They are high speed machines with powered mixing blades known as shears. Materials
mixed by a high shear mixer are unlike miscible materials that can be mixed easily using a low shear mixer.

• The use of high shear mixers is required for ingredients that do not blend easily, are immiscible, and require more
stringent and aggressive measures, such as liquids with different viscosities or contain solids that need to be broken
down.

• The most common form of high shear mixing is dispersion that uses high speed and high shear processing with more
horsepower. As dispersion blades rotate, they make contact with particles and break them apart. A horizontal laminar
dissolves or disperses the flow coming from the blades into upward or downward flow.

• They can mix liquids and solids that would typically not mix such as oil and water. The high shear mixers can emulsify
immiscible materials. They have traditionally been used in the rubber industry but have become applicable in other
industries like chemical, food, pharmaceutical, cosmetics, and adhesive industries.
 Spiral Mixers
• Spiral mixers have a pulley system powered by a motor to rotate the bowl and a motor to rotate the spiral
arm. Since the system does not have any gears, its motion is smoother, more uniform, and quieter. Spiral
mixers are capable of mixing any volume of ingredients using gentler action.

• The motion of a spiral mixer can be in one or two directions, which helps in improving mixing consistency.
The two direction or bi-direction of spiral mixers make them easier to clean and use. Additionally, they have
an absorption rate (AR) of 80% to 90%, a factor that lowers the amount of necessary ingredients per mixing
batch. The sizes of spiral mixers range between 180 lbs. up to 440 lbs. with a footprint to fit any size mixing
operation.

• The mixers described above are a small sampling of the many mixers that manufacturers supply in standard
designs. There is an endless number of mixers that are used by industrial operations to meet the ever
changing needs of customers. The extent of mixers runs the gamut from usual mixer designs to custom
manufactured types to fit special and unusual applications.
 Ribbon Blender
• The name of a ribbon blender is derived from the shape of the blades that make up the paddles of the blender,
which are inner and outer helical ribbons that move material inward and outward.

• The outer blades pull product from the sides of the mixer to its middle while the inner ribbons move the product
out to the sides. This back and forth motion creates a convective mixing pattern.

• Ribbon blenders are used for blending powders and are most often used for solid on solid mixing. The design of
ribbon blenders makes it possible to have fast and efficient mixing cycles that can range from a few minutes to less
than twenty minutes with a tip speed of about 1.4 meter per second. Although the process happens quickly, the
ribbon agitators move at a slow speed to create a gentle folding action.

• Even though a ribbon blender is capable of mixing products effectively and attaining homogeneity, it has a high
cost compared to paddle mixers and is more difficult to maintain.
 Static Mixers
• Static mixers have a mixing element that has the shape of a twisted ribbon, helix, or other form that is placed in a
cylinder. They do not have any moving parts because the mixing element disrupts and blocks the flow of liquids or
gases that are forced through one end of the cylinder.

• As liquids or gases flow through the cylinder of a static mixer, the shape of the element causes turbulence that
mixes the materials by breaking down their molecules. Static mixers disperse gases into immiscible liquids to form
a homogenous solution. They are not used for mixing solids, granules, or powders.

• They are typically used in production lines that prefer continuous material flow to batch mixing. Thus, static mixers
can facilitate smooth operation and faster mixing by mixing constant and steady liquid streams. Static mixers allow
a high level of control over the extent of mixing needed. This would depend on the intended outcome where some
outcomes are homogenous while others are less precise.

• Static mixers are typically used in industries like chemical, cosmetic, automotive, pharmaceutical, and water
treatment industries. Static mixers are effective when used with low viscosity liquids and materials.
High Shear Mixer Spiral Mixer

Ribbon Blende Static Mixer

 Paddle Mixers

• Paddle mixers have agitators in the shape of a paddle that gently scoop, lift, and tumble materials.

• They are ideal for ingredients with dissimilar shapes, sizes, densities, and viscosities.

• The scooping action of a paddle mixer is used for blending fragile ingredients, like nuts or fiberglass strands.

• The motion of the pitched paddles of a paddle mixer causes

materials to move in a 3 dimensional figure eight pattern, which
pulls material from each end of the mixer to its middle and
down the sides.

• The rotating motion of the dual shafts creates a kneading and

folding motion where the material and binder are continuously
fed into the mixer. Paddle Mixer
 Emulsifier Mixers
• These types of mixers are utilized in mixing immiscible liquids. Examples of two substances that are completely not
miscible are oil and water. In the cases when there is a requirement of a totally homogenized and emulsified
mixture like in making sunscreen, lipstick, lotion, and mixing cosmetics, an emulsifier is utilized.

• This mixer is a special type of mixer that not only utilizes pressure for the complete mixing of liquid-liquid
substances, but also incorporates isolated vacuum-filled equipment as well as high shear.
• There is the incorporation of a centrifugal force in vacuum
emulsifier homogenizers. The materials are driven by this force
into the work head for their breakdown into smaller particles. In
the case of cream and milk, cream consists of fat molecules that
are large, which separate from milk because of the big difference
between the sizes of the molecules; emulsification is responsible
for the breaking down of the cream molecules so that they
become similar to milk molecules in their size. Emulsifier Mixer
 Drum Mixers
• Drum mixers have single or multiple blades attached to the inside walls of the drum with a frame that
supports the drum as it rotates.
• As the drum rotates, the blades on the interior walls lift the
ingredients and raise them to the upper wall of the drum. At the apex
of the rotation, the ingredients fall back to the underside of the drum
to repeat the process.

• Of the various types of mixers, drum mixers are widely used for their
transportability, tight seal, and the small footprint of some models.

• They are capable of mixing materials with different particle sizes and
are used to mix materials with low to medium viscosities, such as
adhesives and slurries. They are classified as batch mixers because
Drum Mixer
they mix one batch at a time.
Convective Mixers

• Convective mixers have a short mixing period. This type of mixer is preferred by some industries because of
its faster working rate.

• Convective mixers are less practical for

operations that are diffusive.

• They are firm physically and contain resolute

shelves with an impeller. Ribbon blenders,
vertical screw blenders, and paddle blenders
are mixers classified under this category.

Convective Mixer