Review Concept

• cellular concept
• fundamental concept of frequency reuse
• cluster size decreases, the capacity increases

• basics of traffic theory

• types of interferences, specially co channel
• interference limited
• basic interference mitigation techniques
• improving capacity as well as coverage.
• cell splitting, sectoring microcell zoning and of
course the use of repeaters.
Propagation Mechanism
What affects it, how do we actually send
the desired signal right up to the receiver
and how do we interpret the signals
received and make get some useful
information out of it.
 Propagation Mechanism
The mobile radio channel places
fundamental limitations on the
performance of wireless communication
system.
transmission path may either be line of
sight(a direct line of sight from the
transmitted to the receiver) or a non-line
of sight in which case my signal is
actually obstructed either by building or
foliage or hills or even cars on the streets.
Radio channels are random and often
time varying.
Propagation Mechanism
 Modeling radio channels have been one of the
most difficult parts of the mobile radio designs.
 radio channels behave differently in different
frequencies.
 when electrons move, they create electromagnetic
waves that can propagate through space.
 By attaching an antenna of the appropriate size to
an electrical circuit, the electromagnetic waves
can be broadcast efficiently and on the other hand,
received by a receiver at a distance away.
 antenna is an interface between the circuit and the
wireless channel.
Propagation Mechanism
The radio, microwave, infrared and
visible light portions of the
electromagnetic spectrum can all be used
to transmit information.
Information can be sent by modulating
the amplitude, frequency, or phase of the
waves.
Properties of radio waves
easy to generate
travel long distances usually without line
of site .
can penetrate buildings.
Omnidirectional
frequency dependence. The radio waves
at higher frequencies tend to behave more
like light. That is, they have difficulty
penetrating obstacles.
Properties of radio waves
 can get absorbed by rain fog particles, dust
particles, etc.
 frequencies above 10GHz, propagation will be
affected by rain. If suddenly during the
transmission there is snow fall or rainfall, then
signal power at the receiving end will go down
significantly.
 lower frequencies, they can pass obstacles and the
power falls sharply with distance of source. It
depends simply not on the inverse square law
formula. It also depends on the path loss exponent
which is related to density of buildings whether it‟s
a concrete jungle whether are foliage or any other
parameter subject to interference from other radio
wave sources.
Modeling the radio channel
Modeling the radio channel is typically done
in a statistical manner.
the statistical modeling is usually done based
on measurement data. So lot of measurement
campaigns are done where in put a power
meter in a car or a truck and move around
away from the base station or the transmitter
and keep taking.
indoor measurement campaigns put a
transmitter on one corner of the room, put the
receiver at different grade locations within
the room and measurements taken.
Antenna Basics- free space formula
antenna form the basic interface between the
radio circuit and the radio channel.
the free space received power is given by the
free space equation which is the received
power „Pr‟ at a distance „D‟ which is related
to „Pt‟- the transmitted power times „GT‟-
the gain of the transmitted antenna, „GR‟-
the gain of the receiver antenna, „lambda‟
squared where lambda is the wavelength, „d‟
is the distance and L is a system loss factor
which has nothing to do with the actual
propagation.
Antenna Basics-
smaller wave lengths larger frequency
band the gain is higher. The directivity is
higher.
An isotropic radiator is an ideal antenna
that radiates power with unit gain
uniformly in all directions.
Radio Propagation Mechanisms
 Reflection occurs when the electromagnetic wave
impinges on an object which has a very large
dimension as compared to the wavelength.
 Diffraction on the other hand occurs when the
radio path between the transmitter and receiver is
obstructed. So it‟s obstructed by a surface that has
sharp irregularities, for example edges.
 Scattering occurs when the medium has objects
that are smaller or comparable to the wavelengths.
So small objects, rough surfaces, irregularities,
water droplets, rain snow, dust particles can cause
scattering.
 Propagation Mechanism
reflections occur when the
electromagnetic wave impinges on an
object which has a very large dimension
as compared to the wavelength. So it‟s all
relative.
Reflection
 If a radio wave is incident on a perfect dielectric, then
part of the energy is reflected back into the original
medium whereas part of the energy is actually
transmitted through the dielectric. A lot of materials in
the room which cause reflections are made out of
dielectrics. Brick walls, simple wooden table, all form
part of the dielectric reflecting surfaces.
 If the radio waves are incident on a perfect conductor,
the entire energy is reflected back. This is important
because if we have metal frames in the windows, a
strong scattering effect and reflecting effect will
happen from these metallic surfaces. So metal
conductors, building tops, surfaces which have
metallic surfaces will form perfect reflectors.
Propagation Mechanism
diffraction which occurs when the radio
path between the transmitter and receiver
is obstructed by a surface that has sharp
irregularities for example, edges.
Diffraction
 This occurs when the radio path between the
transmitter and receiver is obstructed by a surface that
has sharp irregularities or edges. Edges, corners,
bends, etc. will cause diffraction.
 Diffraction is very important because otherwise
without line of sight sitting in this room, would not be
able to receive any signal from base station.
 Hence this explains how radio signals can travel urban
and rural environments without a clear line of sight
and diffraction can be explained by Huygens
principle. that all points on a wave front can be
considered as point sources for the production of
secondary wavelets.
Diffraction
knife edge diffraction geometry
Propagation Mechanism
The third is scattering which occurs when
the medium has objects that are smaller or
comparable to the wavelength. Again
small and large is always with respect to
the wavelength. Small objects, rough
surfaces and other irregularities in the
channel will cause scattering.
Scattering
 Now let us look at the third method which is scattering .
 occurs when the medium has object, smaller or comparable to the
wavelength. Small objects, rough surfaces rain drops, other
irregularities in the channel, dust dew drops will cause scattering.
 Scattering will also be caused by foliage for example. The moment
we go to higher frequencies, our wavelengths become smaller and
smaller and very soon they become comparable to the size of the
leaves and suddenly the foliage becomes important.
 At GSM frequencies 900 MHz, 800 MHz, the propagation through
trees is not a major impediment. But the moment going above 10
GHz, you face a problem. If you see a patch of green; a lot of
absorption, scattering and diffraction will start taking place. It is
important to have these effects in mind. Scattering follows the same
principle as diffraction. It causes the transmitter energy to be
radiated in many directions. So foliage, street signs, lamp posts,
edges can cause scattering.