Chapter 4.

Fuels
Chapter 4. Fuels
Introduction :
Internal combustion engine can be operated on
different kind of fuels including liquid , gaseous, and
even solid materials. The character of the fuels used may
have considerable influence on the design, output ,
efficiency of fuel consumption, reliability and
durability of the engine. Therefor , more research has
been carried out in this field than in any other aspect of
engine development.
Over 99% of the worlds internal combustion engines
use liquid fuels derived from petroleum and some countries
use similar fuels derived by hydrogenation of coal.
.

Important fuels for IC engines are listed below

A. Liquid Fuels- Gasoline , Kerosene, Diesel

B. Gaseous Fuels- Blast Furnace gas, Coal gas , Natural

Gas
C. Solid Fuels- Powdered Coal

D. Non- Petroleum Fuels- Methyl Alcohol , Ethyl

Alcohol
 .

Heat engine converts heat energy into mechanical work

by burning fuel in the engine cylinder.

The chemical reactions which permit the release of heat

energy depends mainly upon:

 the nature of the fuel and

 the method of introducing it into the combustion

chamber.
 .
 Fuels used for internal combustion engines must
have certain physical, chemical proporties, and
combustion requirements such as:
1. High energy density.
2. Good combustion qualities.
3. High thermal stability.
4. Low deposit forming tendencies.
5. Compatibility with the engine hardware.
6. Good fire safety.
7. Low toxicity.
8. Low pollution.
9. Easy transferability and onboard vehicle storage.
The natural petroleum oil is the largest single source of internal
combustion engine fuels.
PETROLEUM REFINING PROCESS
The crude oil, as it comes out from the oil wells, contains impurities
such as water, solids and gases consisting mainly of ethane and
methane.
The boiling points of various hydrocarbons increase with an
increase in molecular weight
The main refinery processes are as follows:
(i) Thermal cracking: If large hydrocarbon molecules are heated to a high
temperature and pressure they decompose into smaller, lower boiling-point
molecules. This process of thermal decomposition is called cracking.
(ii) Catalytic cracking: Catalytic cracking using a catalyst is done at a lower
pressure and temperature than the thermal cracking.
• Catalytic cracking gives better anti-knock property gasoline as compared to
thermal cracking.
(iii) Polymerisation: Polymerization is the process of converting olefins, the
unsaturated products of cracking, into heavier and stable compounds such as
high octane gasoline.
iv) Reforming
(v) Blending
(vi) Alkylation
(vii) Isomerization
Fractional distillation
of petroleum
 Products of refining process
(i) Natural Gas. Natural gas is found dissolved in
petroleum or in huge amounts under earth surface in
oil and gas bearing areas.
Natural gas is made up mainly of the paraffmic compound
methane, a small amount of propane, ethane, butane and
other light hydrocarbons plus some nitrogen and oxygen.
(ii) Liquified Petroleum Gas, LPG. Propane and butane and
some other light hydrocarbons after separation from natural
gas, if stored under pressure, form liquid and this is called
liquified petroleum gas (LPG). LPG is supplied in containers
under pressure.

(iii) Gasoline. Gasoline is the lightest liquid petroleum fraction.

All material boiling up to 200°C is generally considered as
gasoline. This is mixture of a number of hydrocarbons (more
than 40). The composition depends upon the crude oil and
refining process. Gasoline lies in specific gravity range 0.70 to
0.78. This covers most of fuels used for spark-ignition engines.
(iv) Kerosene. The kerosene is a fraction heavier
than gasoline. Its boiling range is 150 to 300°C and
the specific gravity range is 0.78 to 0.85.
Kerosene is used in aviation gas turbines, as jet fuel
and in lamps and stoves.
(v) Distillate. The distillate is slightly heavier than
kerosene. These are used as tractor fuels and
domestic fuels.
(vi) Diesel Oils. Diesel oils are fuels which lie
between kerosene and lubricating oils. These cover
a wide range of specific gravity and boiling point.
Boiling range is 200 to 370°C. These form the fuels
for compression- ignition engines.
(vii) Fuel Oils. Fuel oils are similar to diesel fuel in specific gravity
and distillation range but their composition varies in a range wider
than those of diesel fuels. These are used as industrial fuels.

(viii) Lubricating Oils. Lubricating oils are made up of heavy

distillate of petroleum and residual oil. These are used for
lubricating purposes.

(ix) Tar and Asphalt. Tar and asphalt are solid or semi-solid
undistilled products of petroleum.

(x) Petroleum Coke. Petroleum coke is used as solid industrial

fuel.
 FUELS FOR SPARK-IGNITION ENGINES

Gasoline: Gasoline is the major product of the petroleum

industry and forms most of the SI engine fuel. It is a
mixture of various hydrocarbons such as paraffins, olefins,
naphthenic, and aromatics. The composition of gasoline
varies with the source of crude oil and the nature of
refining process.
 Important Qualities or property of SI Engine Fuels

A. Volatility

B. Detonation and Pre ignition Characteristics (Anti

Knocking Characteristics)

C. Heat of Combustion

D. Heat of Evaporation

E. Chemical stability, neutrality and Cleanliness

F. Safely

G. Cost and availability

Volatility
Volatility is the measure of a fuel’s ability to vaporize.

Only vaporized fuel supports complete combustion.

Liquid fuel in the combustion chamber dilutes engine

oil and prevents lubrication.

Low Volatility Problems
A fuel with low volatility causes:
Hard cold starts
Poor cold drive ability
Increased plug and combustion chamber deposits
High Volatility Problems
High evaporative emissions
Poor hot driveability
Poor fuel economy
 Winter Blend
In the winter (in cold areas of the country), fuel must be

more volatile in order to provide good cold starts and

drive ability.
This fuel is specially blended for winter use only, and would

be too volatile for summer.

Summer Blend
Fuel used in the summer must be less volatile to prevent

high volatility problems because of higher temperatures.

Fuel is also blended for the altitude where it is used.

Detonation

 It is a loud pulsating noise heard within the engine cylinder

(also known as knocking or pinking).

 It is the propagation of a high speed pressure wave created by

the auto ignition of end portion of un burnt fuel.

 The blow of this pressure wave may be sufficient enough to

break the piston.

 Thus detonation is harmful to the engine and must be

avoided.
Factors that causes detonation:
a. The shape of combustion chamber
b. The relative position of the spark plug in case of petrol
engine.
c. The chemical nature of the fuel

d. The initial pressure and temperature of the fuel

e. The rate of combustion of that portion the fuel first ignite. This
portion of the fuel in heating up, compresses the remaining
unburnt fuel, thus producing the condition of auto ignition to
occur.
 The following are the chief effects due to
detonation:
a. A loud pulsating noise accompanied by vibration of the
engine.
b. An increase of heat lost to the surface of combustion
chamber.
c. An increase in Carbon deposits.
Sulfur Content
Sulfur is contained in crude oil and some remains in the

gasoline.
A good fuel must possess low sulphur content

because formation of sulphuric acids causes

corrosion.
Too much sulfur causes corrosion in the engine and

exhaust system, and a rotten egg smell.

Sulfur is limited to .01% by regulation.
Cleanliness
 The fuel must be clean and should not contain dirt or dust.
 The corrosion can cause pitting in the valve faces therefore,
be leakage of hot gasses and lowering of compression ratio.
 Ratings of SI Engine Fuels
Octane Ratings

A higher compression ratio makes an engine more efficient.

A higher compression ratio also makes an engine more likely

to experience detonation.
Octane rating is a measure of the fuel’s ability to resist

detonation.
A test engine is used to determine the octane of a fuel

sample by comparing its anti-knock capability against a test

fuel mixture.
 Determination of the octane number
In octane number tests the performance of unknown gasoline is

compared with that of a series of reference fuels consisting of

mixtures of iso-octane and n-heptane.
Iso-octane is a low boiling point branched chain compound and

has a very slight tendency to knock or best anti knock

characteristics and, hence, arbitrarily assigned an octane number
of 100. n-heptane detonates rapidly and hence, has been
assigned an octane number of zero.
Regular and Premium Fuel
Regular fuel = 87 octane
Mid-grade = 89 octane
Premium = 93 octane
High compression engines require higher octane fuel.
Engines designed for regular fuel do not benefit from
premium.
Octane Improvers
Since lead can no longer be used to improve octane,

several other compounds have been utilized.

Aromatic hydrocarbons

Ethanol, methanol, tertiary butyl alcohol (TBA)

Dopes or Additives:

 Various dopes or additives are mixed with petrol to achieve desirable properties. These maybe

hydrocarbons , non hydrocarbons, organic or inorganic compounds.

important additives are:

a. Benzole

b. Ethyl Alcohol

c. Tetra Ethyl Lead (TEL)

d. Tetra Methyl Lead (TML)

Purpose of Dopes or Additives:
1. Oxidation Inhibitors- these are meant to avoid reaction of some
components of petrol with each other and with oxygen thus controlling
deposit formation during storage.
2. Rust Inhibitors – These are added to protect components of the fuel
supply system against rusting.
3. Metal Deactivators- These are added to inhibit reactions between the
petrol and metals in the fuel supply system.
4. Detergents – Keeps the carburettor jets clean and prevent their
clogging.
5. TEL ( Tetra Ethyl Lead) – It is added to increase the octane ratings.
S.I. Engine Fuels:

I. Present Fuels.

a. Gasoline or Petrol

b. L.P.G. (Liquified Petroleum Gas)

II. Alternative Fuels

a. Alcohol

b. Benzol

c. hydrogen
 .

1. Gasoline or Petrol

 It is the mixture of hydrocarbons , manufactured by crude distillation

followed by refining process. The composition is not fixed. These are prepared

by blending different refinery gasolines and additives to obtain desired

quality of fuel having desired octane number, volatility, stability and

antiknock qualities

2. LPG ( Liquefied Petroleum gas)

 It contains mainly butane and propane and is also used as engine fuel. The

engine is provided with special fuel system.

Alternative fuels:

1. Alcohol

- Ethyl Alcohol is mainly used as a fuel. It has high anti knock rating ( above 100) and is

used as blending agent. It has Low calorific value ( 27,000 KJ/Kg) and higher cost per

liter than gasoline.

2. Benzol

- It is obtained by distillation of coal. It has very high octane number( above 115) and is

valuable blending component. But it has high freezing and not suitable for uses in

cold climate. High aroma content leads to large carbon deposits.

Advantages of Alcohol Additives
Absorbs water in fuel tank
Cleans the fuel system
Reduces CO emission
Increases fuel octane by three points
Disadvantages of Alcohol Additives
Can clog fuel filters due to cleaning action
Raises the volatility of fuel
Lowers miles per gallon by 2-3%
Absorbs water then separates from gasoline in cold
weather.
Alternative fuels:

3. Hydrogen

 It is a perfect fuel . Hydrogen is used in liquid form . It

emits less pollution .

 Octane rating of over 130

 Lack of infrastructure for refueling

Basic Diesel Fuel and Fuel Analysis
Important Quality of CI Fuels:
a. Ignition Quality

b. Viscosity

c. Heat of combustion

d. Volatility

e. Cleanliness

f. Non corrosiveness
Ignition Quality

 The term ignition quality is used to cover loosely the ignition temperature vs. delay

characteristics of fuel when used in engine. Good ignition quality means short delay

angle at given speed , compression ratio, air inlet and jacket temperature.

Viscosity

 Diesel fuel is injected into the combustion chamber. High viscosity fuel is not finely

atomized and requires more injection pressure. The injection pressure and the degree

of atomization of the fuel depend on diesel viscosity.

Affects injector lubrication and atomization
Low viscosity fuels may not provide sufficient
lubrication in close-fit pumps and injectors
Can cause abnormal wear, loss of power &
smoke
Influences the size of the fuel droplets
High viscosity increases wear of fuel pump and
injection pump due to high injection pressures
Effect of Viscosity
 Heating Value
Affects power output and fuel economy
The heat of combustion is a measure of the amount
of energy available to produce work
In general, a fuel with a higher volumetric heating
value (BTU per gallon) will produce more power or
provide better fuel economy
 Flash Point
Related to volatility and fire hazard in handling
It is the temperature at which fuel vapors can be
ignited when exposed to a flame
Affected by the type of fuel and the air/fuel ratio
It is important for safety reasons, not for engine
operating characteristics
The minimum flash point for most diesel fuels is
about 100°F (38°C)
Sulphur Content

 The pressure of the sulphur in the diesel fuel reduces the self ignition temperature of

the fuel. The injected fuel starts burning at a lower temperature in the combustion

chamber. On the other hand high sulphur increases wear due to acidic corrosion and

deposition of carbon on piston rings.

Volatility

 Diesel fuel must be volatile at the cylinder temperature. If volatility of fuel is less, it

burns only partially and leave carbon particles. These carbon particles in the cylinder

cause cylinder wear and can chock the injector orifice.

Cleanliness

 The fuel should be free from water and sediments. These can damage the

injection unit (Fuel pump and Fuel Injector).

Ignition Lag

 A fuel particle takes a certain time to ignite after injection into the

combustion chamber. The time interval is called ignition lag. Lesser the

time of ignition lag , better quality of fuel.

Carbon Residue
Measures residue in fuel, can influence
combustion
Carbon rich fuels are harder to burn
Leads to the formation of soot and carbon
deposits
Hot spots on liners, burned oil film,
scuffing, stuck rings, turbocharger and
engine deposits are the results
Carbon Residue
Ash
Deposit-forming inorganic residues
Consists of metal and other contaminants
that cannot be burned
Cause localized overheating of metal surfaces
such as the exhaust valve seat
Causes wear of cylinder and fuel system
components, and the turbocharger
Avoid use of unproven additives, use filters
and settling tanks to remove solids
CI or Diesel fuel Rating:

The ignition lag of diesel fuel can result in sudden and rapid ignition of accumulated fuel in

the combustion chamber. This causes knock in CI Engine . The ignition quality of diesel is

measured by cetane number.

Cetane number- is the percentage of cetane over the mixture of cetane and methyl

naphthalene. For example if the cetane number of diesel fuel is assigned to be 85 that

means the mixture has 85% cetane and 15% methyl naphthalene.
Dopes or Additives for CI Engine Fuels:
Cetane number of diesel fuel can be improved by mixing some additives into the
fuel. They decrease the ignition lag and maximum pressure of the cycle and
increase the cetane number.
Most Common Additives for Diesel Fuel are:
1. Ethyl Nitrate
2. Isoamyl Nitrate
3. Methyl cetane
4. Butyl Peroxide
5. Acetone peroxide
Diesel OIL

 Diesel oil is widely used as fuel for CI engines because of low cost and

Higher Thermal efficiency. The cost of diesel is less than that of gasoline

as it is obtained by fractional distillation of crude petroleum at lower

temperatures. The production cost of of diesel fuel is less.

Alternative Fuels

 There are rapid depletion of petroleum fuels ( Petrol , Diesel oil) creating

shortage and escalation in their cost. There is intensive search for

alternative fuels. Alcohols have been found to be main fuels which can

substitute the petroleum fuels. Methly alcohol can be produced by

gasification of coal.
Or lignite and also municipal wastes. Ethyl alcohol can be produced by fermentation of carbohydrates such as

sugarcane, corn and potatoes. Brazil, Cuba and Philippines are using alcohol as motor fuel for a long period.

Alcohols are being used as follows:

1. Pure alcohol

2. Alcohol gasoline blends for SI Engines

3. Alcohol Diesel Blends for CI Engines

Diesel Additives
Engine Performance
Detergents - prevent deposit buildup and extend
injector life. Increase filter life by keeping the filters
clean
Cetane Improvers - raise cetane number
Lubricity - replaces natural lubricants
Fuel Handling
Anti-foam - reduces foaming when pumping fuel
Anti-Static - lowers risk of static induced explosion
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