Power and Refrigeration Systems

—With Phase Change

 The Rankine Cycle

1–2: Reversible adiabatic pumping process

2–3: Constant-pressure heat transfer in the boiler
3–4: Reversible adiabatic expansion in the turbine
4–1: Constant-pressure heat transfer in the condenser
 The Rankine Cycle
Rankine cycle also includes the possibility of superheating the vapor:1–2–3’ –4’ –1
Superheating improves the efficiency and reduces the possibility of moisture in the
turbine.

1 – 2 – 3’ – 4’ – c – a –1  QH: Heat supply to the cycle

1 – 4’ – c – a –1  QL: Heat rejection

1 – 2 – 3’ –1  Work

=
 Effect of pressure and temperature on the Rankine cycle
• When the exhaust pressure drop from P4 to P4’ with the
corresponding decrease in temperature at which heat is rejected
 The net work is increased by area 1–4–4’–1’–2’–2–1.
• The heat transferred to the steam is increased by area a’ –2’ –2–a–
a’.
• Since these two areas are approximately equal, the net result is an
increase in cycle efficiency is very low.
• This is also evident from the fact that the average temperature at
which heat is rejected is decreased.
• However, that lowering the back pressure causes the moisture
content of the steam leaving the turbine to increase.

If the moisture in the low-pressure stages of the turbine exceeds about 10%:
• The turbine efficiency decreases,
• Erosion of the turbine blades may also be a very serious problem.
 Effect of pressure and temperature on the Rankine cycle
• The work is increased by area 3–3’ –4 –4’–3, and the heat
transferred in the boiler is increased by area 3–3’ –b’ –b–3.
• Since the ratio of these two areas is greater than the ratio of
net work to heat supplied for the rest of the cycle 
superheating the steam increases the Rankine-cycle
efficiency.
• This increase in efficiency would also follow from the fact
that the average temperature at which heat is transferred to
the steam is increased. When the steam is superheated, the
quality of the steam leaving the turbine increases.
• The influence of the maximum pressure of the steam must
be considered. In this analysis the maximum temperature
of the steam, as well as the exhaust pressure, is held
constant.
 Effect of pressure and temperature on the Rankine cycle
• The heat rejected decreases by area b’ –4’ –4–b–b’ .
• The net work increases by the amount of the single Showing
any
cross-hatching and decreases by the amount of the solution ?
double cross-hatching.
• Therefore, the net work tends to remain the same but
the heat rejected decreases.
• The Rankine-cycle efficiency increases with an
increase in maximum pressure

The quality of the steam leaving the turbine

decreases as the maximum pressure increases.

There is ambiguity: what should we do for increasing the thermal efficiency

and to increase the quality of the steam leaving the turbine ????
 The reheat cycle
• The efficiency of the Rankine cycle could be increased by increasing
the pressure during the addition of heat. However, the increase in
pressure also increases the moisture content of the steam in the low-
pressure end of the turbine.

• The reheat cycle has been developed to take advantage of the increased
efficiency with higher pressures and yet avoid excessive moisture in the
low-pressure stages of the turbine.

• The steam is expanded to some intermediate pressure in the turbine

• then reheated in the boiler,
• after which it expands in the turbine to the exhaust pressure.

• Observations: It is evident from the T–s diagram that there is very little
gain in efficiency from reheating the steam, because the average
temperature at which heat is supplied is not greatly changed. The chief
advantage is in decreasing to a safe value the moisture content in the low-
pressure stages of the turbine. If metals could be found that would enable
us to superheat the steam to 3’, the simple Rankine cycle would be more
efficient than the reheat cycle, and there would be no need for the reheat
cycle.
The regenerative cycle and feedwater heaters
• The regenerative cycle extracts some of the vapor after it has
partially expanded in the turbine and uses feedwater heaters (FWH).
• Steam enters the turbine at state 5. After expansion to state 6, some
of the steam is extracted and enters the FWH.
• The steam that is not extracted is expanded in the turbine to state 7
and is then condensed in the condenser.
• This condensate is pumped into the FWH, where it mixes with the
steam extracted from the turbine.
• The proportion of steam extracted is just sufficient to cause the
liquid leaving the FWH to be saturated at state 3.
• Note that the liquid has not been pumped to the boiler pressure,
but only to the intermediate pressure corresponding to state 6.
• Another pump is required to pump the liquid leaving the FWH boiler
pressure. The significant point is that the average temperature at
which heat is supplied has been increased. Consider a control
volume around the open FWH.
The regenerative cycle and feedwater heaters
 The regenerative cycle and feedwater heaters
• Another frequently used type of FWH, known as a closed feedwater heater, is one in which the
steam and feedwater do not mix.

• Rather, heat is transferred from the extracted steam as it condenses on the outside of tubes while
the feedwater flows through the tubes.

• The steam and feedwater may be at considerably different pressures. The condensate may be
pumped into the feedwater line, or it may be removed through a trap to a lower-pressure heater or
to the condenser.
 The regenerative cycle and feedwater heaters

• Open FWHs have the advantages of being less

expensive and having better heat transfer
characteristics than closed FWHs. They have the
disadvantage of requiring a pump to handle the
feedwater between each heater.

• Increased number of extraction stages, would

increases the thermal efficiency of the plant.
However, it effect much on the cost of the
equipment and maintenance.

The condensate from the high-pressure heater drains (through a trap) to the intermediate heater,
and the condensate from the intermediate heater drains to the deaerating FWH. The condensate
from the low-pressure heater drains to the condenser.
 Deviation of actual cycles from ideal cycles
• An actual cycle deviates from an ideal cycle: The
most important losses are due to the turbine, the
pump(s), the pipes, and the condenser.

• Turbine Losses: Turbine losses are primarily those

associated with the flow of the working fluid
through the turbine blades and passages, with heat
transfer to the surroundings also being a loss but of
secondary importance

• Pump Losses: The losses in the pump are similar
to those in the turbine and are due to the
irreversibilities with the fluid flow.
State 4s: Ideal isentropic turbine expansion
State 4 : Actual state leaving the turbine
following an irreversible process.
2s: The ideal exit state 2: Real exit state

• Pump losses are much smaller than those of the

turbine, since the associated work is far smaller.
 Deviation of actual cycles from ideal cycles

• Piping Losses: Pressure drops caused by frictional effects

and heat transfer to the surroundings are the most
important piping losses.

• Condenser Losses: The losses in the condenser are

relatively small. One of these minor losses is the cooling
below the saturation temperature of the liquid leaving
the condenser. This represents a loss because additional
heat transfer is necessary to bring the water to its
saturation temperature.
REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS
 The vapor-compression refrigeration cycle
• In the ideal refrigeration cycle, the working substance that changes
its phase during the cycle, similar to the Rankine power cycle.
• Saturated vapor at low pressure enters the compressor and
undergoes reversible adiabatic compression, process 1–2.
• Heat is then rejected at constant pressure in process 2–3, and the
working fluid exits the condenser as saturated liquid.
• An adiabatic throttling process, 3–4,
• follows, and the working fluid is then evaporated at constant
pressure, process 4–1, to complete the cycle.
 The vapor-compression refrigeration cycle
• The standard vapor-compression refrigeration cycle has four known
processes (one isentropic, two isobaric, and one isenthalpic) between
the four states
• The similarity of this cycle to the reverse of the Rankine cycle has
already been noted.
• There will be very little work output from isentropic expansion
process. Hence, the turbine replaced with a throttling device (a valve
or a length of small-diameter tubing)
• The working fluid is throttled from the high-pressure to the low-
pressure side.

• Note the difference between this cycle and the ideal Carnot cycle, in which the working fluid always remains
inside the two-phase region, 1’–2’–3–4’–1’ .
• It is much more expedient to have a compressor handle-only vapor than a mixture of liquid and vapor, as would
be required in process 1, –2, of the Carnot cycle.
• It is virtually impossible to compress, at a reasonable rate, a mixture such as that represented by state 1’ and
still maintain equilibrium between liquid and vapor.
 The vapor-compression refrigeration cycle
• The measure of performance of a refrigeration system is given in terms of the
coefficient of performance (COP), β

• Refrigeration systems and heat pump systems are, of course, different in terms
of design variables, but the analysis of the two is the same.
 Deviation of the actual VCR cycle from the ideal cycle
• The actual refrigeration cycle deviates from the ideal cycle primarily because of pressure
drops associated with fluid flow and heat transfer to or from the surroundings.
• The vapor entering the compressor will probably be
superheated. During the compression process, there are
irreversibilities and heat transfer either to or from the
surroundings, depending on the temperature of the
refrigerant and the surroundings.
• For the irreversibility and the heat transferred to the
refrigerant cause an increase in entropy, and the heat
transferred from the refrigerant causes a decrease in entropy
(1–2 and 1–2’) .
• The pressure of the liquid leaving the condenser will be less than the pressure of the vapor
entering, and the temperature of the refrigerant in the condenser will be somewhat higher
than that of the surroundings to which heat is being transferred.
 Deviation of the actual VCR cycle from the ideal cycle
• There is some drop in pressure as the refrigerant flows
through the evaporator.

• It may be slightly superheated as it leaves the

evaporator, and through heat transferred from the
surroundings.

• Its temperature will increase in the piping between the

evaporator and the compressor.

• This heat transfer represents a loss because it increases

the work of the compressor, since the fluid entering it
has an increased specific volume.
 Refrigeration cycle configurations
• The basic refrigeration cycle can be modified for special
applications and to increase the COP.

• This configuration can be used when the temperature

between the compressor stages is too low to use a two-
stage compressor with intercooling, as there is no
cooling medium with such a low temperature.

• The lowest-temperature compressor then handles a

smaller flow rate at the very large specific volume,
which means large specific work, and the net result
increases the COP.
 Refrigeration cycle configurations
• When the temperature range is so large that two
different refrigeration cycles must be used with two
different refrigerants one cycle on top of the other
cycle, called a cascade refrigeration system.
• In this system, the evaporator in the higher-
temperature cycle absorbs heat from the
condenser in the lower temperature cycle,
requiring a temperature difference between the
two.
• This dual fluid heat exchanger couples the mass
flow rates in the two cycles through the energy
balance with no external heat transfer.
• The net effect is to lower the overall compressor
work and increase the cooling capacity compared
to a single-cycle system.
 Absorption refrigeration cycle
• The low-pressure ammonia vapor leaving the evaporator enters
the absorber, where it is absorbed in the weak ammonia
solution.
• This process takes place at a temperature slightly higher than
that of the surroundings. Heat must be transferred to the
surroundings during this process.
• The strong ammonia solution is then pumped through a heat
exchanger to the generator, where a higher pressure and
temperature are maintained.
• Under these conditions, ammonia vapor is driven from the
solution as heat is transferred from a high-temperature source.
• The ammonia vapor goes to the condenser, where it is
condensed, as in a vapor compression system, and then to the
expansion valve and evaporator.
• The weak ammonia solution is returned to the absorber
through the heat exchanger.
• The distinctive feature of the absorption system is that very
little work input is required because the pumping process
involves a liquid.
Absorption refrigeration cycle