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Topics in the chapter:
 India's Location
 Its Size
 India and the World
 Its neighbours
Introduction: India is one of the oldest civilisations and have a
remarkable history. After Independence from British rule, it
achieved multifaceted socio-economic progress. Also made a
remarkable progress in the field of agriculture, industry, technology
and overall economic development
India's Location

 Lies entirely in Northern hemisphere between

latitudes 8°4' N and 37°6' N and longitudes 68°7' E
and 97°25' E.
 Divided by Tropic of cancer (23°30' N) in almost
two equal parts.
 In Southeast, Andaman and Nicobar islands lie
in Bay of Bengal.
 In Southwest, Lakshadweep islands lie in
Arabian Sea.
Chapter 1 India : An Introduction
Its Size
 Total Area of India is 3.28 million square km which is
2.4 percent of the total area of the world.
 It is seventh largest country in the world in terms of
landmass.
 It has land boundary of about 15,200 km and the total
length of the coast line of the mainland including
Andaman and Nicobar and Lakshadweep islands is
7,516.6 km.
 In the northwest, north and north east of India, young
folds mountains bounds it.
 South of about 22° north latitude, India narrows and
finally extends towards the Indian Ocean. It also divides
it into two seas, the Arabian Send on the west and the
Bay of Bengal on its east.
 The latitudinal and longitudinal extent of the
mainland is about 30°.
 India's east-west extent appears to be smaller than the
north-south extent.
 The time along the Standard Meridian (82°30'
E). passing through Mirzapur in UP is taken as the
Indian Standard Time for whole country.
 The time gap between Arunachal Pradesh
present in the east and Gujarat present in the west
is about 2 hours. The latitudinal extent influences
the duration of day and night, as one moves from
south to north.
India and the World
 India is located in the centre of the World between East and
the West Asia.
 The routes across the Indian ocean which connect the
countries of Europe in the West and the countries of East Asia
provide a strategic central location to India.
 The Deccan Peninsula helps India to establish close contact
with West Asia, Africa and Europe from the western coast and
with Southeast and East Asia from the eastern coast.
 The Ocean which is south of India given name Indian
Ocean as no other country has a long coastline on the Indian
Ocean as India has.
 The land routes of India are much older than sea
route. Various passes across mountains in the north
have provided passages to the ancient travellers as
ocean limited such interaction for a long time.
 The land routes helped India in the exchange of
ideas and commodities since ancient times.
 India have propagated the ideas of the Upanishads
and the Ramayana, the stories of Panchtantra, the
Indian numerals and the decimal system as well as
given spices, muslin and other merchandise to different
countries.
 Also, the influence of Greek sculpture, and the
architectural styles of dome and minarets from West
Asia can be seen in different parts of India.
Its neighbours
 India is comprised of 29 states and 7 union territories and
shares its land boundary with:
 Northwest: Pakistan and Afghanistan
 North: China, Nepal, Bhutan
 East: Myanmar and Bangladesh
 South: Sri Lanka and Maldives
 Sri Lanka is separated from India by a narrow channel of
sea formed by the Palk Strait and the Gulf of Mannar
 Maldives Islands are situated to the south of the
Lakshadweep Islands.
 A peninsula is a piece of land that is bordered by water on
three sides but connected to mainland on one side.
 Line of Control (LoC)

 The term Line of Control refers to the military

control line between India and Pakistan
occupied parts of the former princely state of
Jammu and Kashmir.
 The line does not constitute a legally
recognized international boundary, but
remains the de-facto border, originally being
Cease-Fire Line.
 It was re-designated as LoC following the
Shimla Agreement on 3rd July, 1972.

Telegram Channel : Unacademy_Anirudh Malik USE CODE: AM10

 The southernmost point of the Indian Union'Indira Point' got
submerged under the sea water in 2004 during the Tsunami.
 Since the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, India's distance
from Europe has been reduced by 7,000 km.
 Before 1947, there were two types of states in India - the
provinces and the Princely states.
 Provinces were ruled directly by British officials who were
appointed by the Viceroy.
 Princely states were ruled by local, hereditary rulers, who
acknowledged sovereignity in return for local autonomy.
 Indian physical features

India has all major physical features of the earth,

i.e., mountains, plains, deserts, plateaus and
islands. The land of India displays great physical
variation. Geologically, the Peninsular Plateau
constitutes one of the ancient land masses on the
earth's surface. The Himalayas and the Northern
Plains are the most recent landforms. The
northern plains are formed of alluvial soil
Major Physiographic Divisions
The physical features of India are grouped under
the following physiographic divisions:
1) The Himalayan Mountains
2) The Northern Plains
3) The Peninsular Plateau
4) The Indian Desert
5) The Coastal Plains
6) The Islands
The Himalayan Mountains
Himalayan mountains are stretched over the northern
borders of India. These mountain ranges run in a west-
east direction from the Indus to the Brahmaputra. The
Himalaya consists of 3 parallel ranges in its
longitudinal extent.
1) The northern-most range is known as the Great or
Inner Himalayas or the Himadri. It is the most
continuous range consisting of the loftiest peaks
with an average height of 6,000 metres.
2) The folds of the Great Himalayas are asymmetrical
in nature. The core of this part of Himalayas is
composed of granite.
3) The range lying to the south of the Himadri forms the
most rugged mountain system and is known as Himachal
or lesser Himalaya.
4) Pir Panjal range forms the longest and the most
important range.
5) The outermost range of the Himalayas is called the
Shiwaliks. These ranges are composed of unconsolidated
sediments.
6) The longitudinal valley lying between lesser Himalaya
and the Shiwaliks are known as Duns. Dehradun, Kotli
Dun and Patli Dun are some of the wellknown Duns.
The Himalayas have also been divided on the basis of regions
from west to east.
1. The part of Himalayas lying between Indus and Satluj has
been traditionally known as Punjab Himalaya but it is also
known regionally as Kashmir and Himachal Himalaya from
west to east respectively.
2. The part of the Himalayas lying between Satluj and Kali
rivers is known as Kumaon Himalayas.
3. The Kali and Teesta rivers divide the Nepal Himalayas and
the part lying between Teesta and Dihang rivers is known as
Assam Himalayas.
4. The Brahmaputra marks the eastern most boundary
of the Himalayas.
5. Beyond the Dihang gorge, the Himalayas bend
sharply to the south and spread along the eastern
boundary of India, which is known as the Purvachal
or the Eastern hills and mountains. The Purvachal
comprises the Patkai hills, the Naga hills, the
Manipur hills and the Mizo hills.
The Northern Plain

The northern plain has been formed by the interplay of the 3 major river
systems - the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra along with their
tributaries. It spreads over an area of 7 lakh sq. km.
The Northern Plain is broadly divided into 3 sections as mentioned below:
1. The Western part of the Northern Plain is referred to as the Punjab
Plains. This plain is formed by the Indus and its tributaries - the Jhelum,
the Chenab, the Ravi, the Beas and the Satluj.
2. The Ganga plain extends between Ghaggar and Teesta rivers. It is spread
over the states of North India, Haryana, Delhi, U.P., Bihar, partly
Jharkhand and West Bengal.
3. Brahmaputra plain lies in the state of Assam.
According to the variations in elevation points, the Northern
plains can be divided into 4 regions.
1. The rivers, after descending from the mountains, deposit
pebbles in a narrow belt of about 8 to 16 km in width
lying parallel to the slopes of the Shiwaliks, which is
known as bhabar. All the streams disappear in this bhabar
belt.
2. The streams and rivers re-emerge and create a wet,
swampy and marshy region known as terai.
3. The largest part of the northern plain is formed of
older alluvium. It lies above the floodplains of the
rivers and presents a terrace like feature which is
known as bhangar.
4. The soil in the bhangar region contains calcareous
deposits and is known as kankar. The newer,
younger deposits of the floodplains are called
khadar.
The Peninsular Plateau
The Peninsular plateau is a tableland composed of the old
crystalline, igneous and metamorphic rocks. It was formed due
to the breaking and drifting of the Gondwana land. One of the
distinct features of the Peninsular plateau is the black soil area
known as Deccan Trap.
This plateau consists of 2 divisions:
1. The Central Highlands: The part of the Peninsular plateau
lying to the north of the Narmada river, covering a major
area of the Malawi plateau, is known as the Central
Highlands. The eastward extensions of this plateau are
locally known as the Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand.
2. The Deccan Plateau: It is a triangular landmass that lies to
the south of the river Narmada. An extension of the Plateau
is also visible in the northeast which is known as the
Meghalaya, Karbi-Anglong Plateau and North Cachar Hills.
The western Ghats and eastern Ghats mark the western and
the eastern edges of the Deccan plateau respectively
Western Ghats Eastern Ghats

Western Ghats lie parallel to the
western coast
They are continuous and can be
crossed through passes only.
The eastern Ghats stretch from
the Mahanadi valley to the nigiris
in the south.
They are discontinuous and
irregular. They can be dissected
by rivers draining into the Bay of
Bengal.

They are higher than the eastern
Ghats. Their average elevation is
900-1600 meters.
Anamudi is the highest peak in
eastern Ghats.
Their average elevation is 600
meters.
Mahendragiri (1,501 meters) is
the highest peak in the eastern
Ghats.
The Indian Desert
The Indian desert lies towards the western margins of
the Aravali Hills.
It is a sandy plain covered with sand dunes.
This region receives very low rainfall below 150
mm per year.
It has a dry climate with low vegetation cover.
The Coastal Plains

A coastal plain is a flat, low-lying piece of land next to the

ocean. To the east and west of the peninsular plateau, 2
narrow strips of plain lands are found, which are
respectively called Eastern Coastal Plain and Western
Coastal Plain.

Eastern Coastal Plain

The Eastern Coastal Plains is a wide stretch of the landmass
lying between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal. In
the northern part, it is referred to as the Northern Circar,
while the southern part is known as the coromandel Coast.
Large rivers, such as he Mahanadi the Godavari, the Krishna
and the Kaveri have formed extensive delta on this coast.
Lake Chilika is an important feature along the eastern coast.
Western Coastal Plain
The western coast is sandwiched between the Western Ghats and
the Arabian Sea. It is a narrow plain and consists of 3 sections as
mentioned below:
 The northern part of the coast is called the Konkan (Mumbai -
Goa)
The central stretch is called the Kannad Plain
The southern stretch is referred to as the Malabar coast
The Islands
An island is a piece of sub-continental land that is
surrounded by water. Lakshadweep Islands group is
composed of small coral islands which were earlier known
as Laccadive, Minicoy and Amindive.
The entire group of islands is divided into 2 broad
categories:
1. The Andaman in the north
2. The Nicobar in the south
These islands lie close to the equator and experience
equatorial climate and have thick forest cover.
Himalayan Drainage:
Many of the Himalayan Rivers existed even before the Himalayas ranges were
uplifted.
These rivers originated in the Tibet beyond the Himalayas. The Himalayan
drainage system has evolved through a long geological history.
It mainly includes the Ganga, the Indus and the Brahmaputra river basins.
These rivers have caused deep gorges for example gorges of Indus, Satluj,
Alakhnanda, Gandak, Kosi etc. which indicate that these rivers are older than
mountain themselves, hence antecedent
The diverse physical features of India have immense future possibilities of
development because of the following reasons.
 The mountains are the major sources of water and forest wealth.
 The northern plains are the granaries of the country. They provide the base for
early civilisations.
 The plateau is a storehouse of minerals, which has played a crucial role in the
industrialisation of India.
 The coastal region and island groups provide sites for fishing and port activities.
Evolution of Himalayan Drainage system:

There was a mighty river called Shiwalik or Indo-Brahma traversed the entire
longitudinal extent of the Himalaya from Assam to Punjab and onwards to
Sind, and finally discharged into the Gulf of Sind near lower Punjab during the
Miocene period some million years ago.
The remarkable continuity of the Shiwalik and its lacustrine origin and
alluvial deposits consisting of sands, silt, clay, boulders and conglomerates
support this viewpoint.
Himalayan rivers later got dismembered into three major systems.
This dismembered was probably due to the Pleistocene upheaval
in the western Himalayas, including the uplift of the Potwar Plateau
(Delhi Ridge), which acted as the water divide between the Indus
and Ganga drainage systems.
Likewise, the down-thrusting of the Malda gap (Garo- Rajmahal
Gap) area between the Rajmahal hills and the Meghalaya plateau
during the mid-Pleistocene period, diverted the Ganga and the
Brahmaputra systems to flow towards the Bay of Bengal.
River characteristics:
Since these are fed both by melting of snow and precipitation, rivers of
this system are perennial.
These rivers pass through the giant gorges carved out by the erosion
activity carried on simultaneously with the uplift of the Himalayas.
Besides deep gorges, these rivers also form V-shaped valleys, rapids and
waterfalls in their mountainous course.
While entering the plains, they form depositional features like flat
valleys, ox-bow lakes, floodplains, braided channels, and deltas near the
river mouth.
In the Himalayan reaches, the course of these rivers is highly tortuous,
but over the plains, they display a strong meandering tendency and shift
their courses frequently.
River System of the Himalayan Drainage:

1.The Indus river system:

It is one of the largest river basins of the world, covering an area of 11,65,000 sq.
km (in India it is 321, 289 sq. km) and a total length of 2,880 km (in India 1,114 km).
The Indus also was known as the Sindhu, is the westernmost of the Himalayan
rivers in India.
It originates from a glacier near Bokhara Chu (31°15′ N latitude and 81°40′ E
longitude) in the Tibetan region at an altitude of 4,164 m in the Kailash Mountain
range.
In Tibet, it is known as ‘Singi Khamban; or Lion’s mouth. After flowing in the
northwest direction between the Ladakh and Zanskar ranges, it passes through
Ladakh and Baltistan.
It cuts across the Ladakh range, forming a spectacular gorge near Gilgit in
Jammu and Kashmir.
It enters into Pakistan near Chillar in the Dardistan region.
The Indus receives a number of Himalayan tributaries such as the Shyok, the Gilgit,
the Zaskar, the Hunza, the Nubra, the Shigar, the Gasting and the Dras.
It finally emerges out of the hills near Attock where it receives the Kabul river on its
right bank.
The other important tributaries joining the right bank of the Indus are the Khurram,
the Tochi, the Gomal, and the Sangar. They all originate in the Sulaiman ranges.
The Indus River flows southward and receives ‘Panjnad’ (five rivers) a little above
Mithankot in Pakistan.
The Panjnad is the name given to the five rivers of Punjab, namely the Satluj, the
Beas, the Ravi, the Chenab and the Jhelum.
It finally discharges into the Arabian Sea, east of Karachi.
Under Indus water Treaty of 1960 between India and Pakistan, 3 western rivers-
Indus, Jhelum and Chenab is allotted to Pakistan
while 3 eastern rivers Satluj, Ravi and Beas are allotted to India for full utilisation.
India can use 20% of the total water of western rivers only.
Jhelum River:
The Jhelum rises from a spring at Verinag situated at the foot of
the Pir Panjal in the south-eastern part of the valley of Kashmir.

It flows through Srinagar and the Wular lake before entering

Pakistan through a deep narrow gorge. It joins the Chenab near
Jhang in Pakistan.
Chenab River:
The Chenab is the largest tributary of the Indus. It is formed by two
streams, the Chandra and the Bhaga, which join at Tandi near Keylong in
Himachal Pradesh.
Hence, it is also known as Chandrabhaga. The river flows for 1,180 km
before entering into Pakistan.

Ravi River:
The Ravi is another important tributary of the Indus. It rises west of
the Rohtang pass in the Kullu hills of Himachal Pradesh and flows
through the Chamba valley of the state.
Before entering Pakistan and joining the Chenab near Sarai Sidhu, it
drains the area lying between the southeastern part of the Pir Panjal
and the Dhauladhar ranges.
 Beas River:
The Beas is another important tributary of the Indus, originating from the Beas Kund
near the Rohtang Pass at an elevation of 4,000 m above the mean sea level.
The river flows through the Kullu valley and forms gorges at Kati and Largi in the
Dhaoladhar range.
It enters the Punjab plains where it meets the Satluj near Harike.

Sutlej River:

The Sutlej originates in the Rakas lake near Mansarovar at an altitude of 4,555 m in Tibet where it is
known as Langchen Khambab.
It flows almost parallel to the Indus for about 400 km before entering India and comes out of a gorge at
Rupar.
It passes through the Shipki La on the Himalayan ranges and enters the Punjab plains. It is an
antecedent river.
It is a very important tributary as it feeds the canal system of the Bhakra Nangal project.
 2.The Ganga River System:

The Ganga river system is the largest in India has a number of perennial and non-
perennial rivers originating in the Himalayas in the north and the Peninsula in the south,
respectively.

Ganga River:

 The Ganga is the most important river of India both from the point of view of its basin and cultural
significance.
 It rises in the Gangotri glacier near Gaumukh (3,900 m) in the Uttarkashi district of Uttarakhand.
Here, it is known as the Bhagirathi.
 It cuts through the Central and the Lesser Himalayas in narrow gorges.
 At Devprayag, the Bhagirathi meets the Alaknanda; hereafter, it is known as the Ganga. The Ganga
enters the plains at Haridwar.
 From here, it flows first to the south, then to the south-east and east before splitting into two
distributaries, namely the Bhagirathi and the Hugli
The important left-bank tributaries are the Ramganga, the Gomati, the Ghaghara,
the Gandak, the Kosi and the Mahananda.
Important right bank tributaries are the Yamuna, Son, Damodar etc.
The river has a length of 2,525 km. The Ganga basin covers about 8.6 lakh sq.
km area in India alone.
In Bangladesh, later it is known as the Padma. Padma river is later on known as
Meghana when it meets Jamuna (Brahmaputra river), which along with Hoogly
river makes the world’s largest Delta is known as Sunderban while emptying into
Bay of Bengal located both in West Bengal of India and Bangladesh.
Alaknanda River:

The Alaknanda has its source in the Satopanth glacier above Badrinath.
The Alaknanda consists of the Dhauli and the Vishnu Ganga which meet at Joshimath
or Vishnu Prayag.
The other tributaries of Alaknanda such as the Pindar join it at Karna Prayag while
Mandakini or Kali Ganga meets it at Rudra Prayag.

Yamuna River:

 The Yamuna, the westernmost and the longest tributary of the Ganga, has its source in the
Yamunotri glacier on the western slopes of Banderpunch range (6,316 km).
 It joins the Ganga at Prayag (Allahabad). It is joined by the Chambal, the Sind, the Betwa and the
Ken on its right bank which originates from the Peninsular plateau while the Hindan, the Rind,
the Sengar, the Varuna, etc. join it on its left bank.
 Much of its water feeds the western and eastern Yamuna and the Agra canals for irrigation
purposes.
Ramganga River

The Ramganga is comparatively a small river rising in the Garhwal hills near
Gairsain.
It changes its course to the southwest direction after crossing the Shiwalik and
enters into the plains of Uttar Pradesh near Najibabad.
Finally, it joins the Ganga near Kannauj.

Gandak River:

 The Gandak comprises two streams, namely Kaligandak and Trishulganga.

 It rises in the Nepal Himalayas between the Dhaulagiri and Mount Everest and drains the central
part of Nepal.
 It enters the Ganga plain in Champaran district of Bihar and joins the Ganga at Sonpur near
Patna.
Ghaghra River:
The Ghaghara originates in the glaciers of Mapchachungo.
After collecting the waters of its tributaries – Tila, Seti and Beri, it comes out of
the mountain, cutting a deep gorge at Shishapani.
The river Sarda (Kali or Kali Ganga) joins it in the plain before it finally meets
the Ganga at Chhapra.

Sarda River:

 The Sarda or Saryu river rises in the Milam glacier in the Nepal
Himalayas where it is known as the Goriganga.
 Along the Indo-Nepal border, it is called Kali or Chauk, where it joins the
Ghaghara.
 Kosi River:
The Kosi is an antecedent river with its source to the north of Mount Everest in
Tibet, where its mainstream Arun rises.
After crossing the Central Himalayas in Nepal, it is joined by the Son Kosi from
the West and the Tamur Kosi from the east.
It forms Sapt Kosi after uniting with the River Arun. River Kosi, also known as
the ‘sorrow of Bihar’, has been notorious for frequently changing its course.
The Kosi brings the huge quantity of sediments from its upper reaches and
deposits it in the plains. The course gets blocked, and consequently, the river
changes its course.
 Mahananda River
The Mahananda is another important tributary of the Ganga rising in the
Darjiling hills.
It joins the Ganga as its last left bank tributary in West Bengal.

Son River

 The Son is its major right bank tributary. The Son is a large south bank tributary of the Ganga,
originating in the Amarkantak plateau.
 After forming a series of waterfalls at the edge of the Rohtas plateau, it reaches Arrah, west of
Patna, to join the Ganga.
Chambal River:
The Chambal rises near Mhow in the Malwa plateau of Madhya Pradesh and
flows northwards through a gorge upwards of Kota in Rajasthan, where the
Gandhisagar dam has been constructed.
From Kota, it traverses down to Bundi, Sawai Madhopur and Dholpur, and
finally joins the Yamuna. The Chambal is famous for its badland topography called
the Chambal ravines.

Damodar River

 The Damodar occupies the eastern margins of the Chotanagpur Plateau where it flows through a
rift valley and finally joins the Hugli.
 The Barakar is its main tributary.
 Once known as the ‘sorrow of Bengal’, the Damodar has been now tamed by the Damodar Valley
Corporation(DVC), a multipurpose project.
 3.The Brahmaputra River system:

The Brahmaputra, one of the largest rivers of the world, has its origin in the
Chemayungdung glacier of the Kailash range near the Mansarovar lake.
From here, it traverses eastward longitudinally for a distance of nearly 1,200 km in
a dry and flat region of southern Tibet, where it is known as the Tsangpo, which
means ‘the purifier.’
The Rango Tsangpo is the major right-bank tributary of this river in Tibet.
It emerges as a turbulent and dynamic river after carving out a deep gorge in the
Central Himalayas near Namcha Barwa (7,755 m), enters into India taking a ‘great
bend’.
The Tsangpo river emerges from the foothills under the name of Siang or Dihang.
It enters India west of Sadiya town in Arunachal Pradesh.
Flowing southwest, it receives its main left-bank tributaries, viz., Dibang or Sikang
and Lohit; thereafter, it is known as the Brahmaputra.
The Brahmaputra receives numerous tributaries in its 750 km long journey through
the Assam valley.
Its major left bank tributaries are the Burhi Dihing and Dhansari (South) whereas
the important right bank tributaries are the Subansiri, Kameng, Manas and
Sankosh.
The Subansiri which has its origin in Tibet is an antecedent river.
The Brahmaputra enters into Bangladesh near Dhubri and flows southward.
In Bangladesh, the Tista joins it on its right bank from where the river is known
as the Jamuna.
It finally merges with the river Padma, which falls in the Bay of Bengal.
The Brahmaputra is well-known for floods, channel shifting and bank erosion.
This is due to the fact that most of its tributaries are large, and bring a large
number of sediments owing to heavy rainfall in its catchment area.
Peninsular Drainage:

The Peninsular drainage system is older than the Himalayan one.

This is evident from the broad, largely-graded shallow valleys, and
the maturity of the rivers
 The Western Ghats running close to the western coast act as the water
divide between the major Peninsular Rivers, discharging their water in
the Bay of Bengal and as small rivulets joining the Arabian Sea.
Most of the major Peninsular rivers except Narmada and Tapi flow
from west to east.
The Chambal, the Sind, the Betwa, the Ken, the Son, originating in
the northern part of the Peninsula belong to the Ganga river system.
The Evolution of Peninsular Drainage System:

Three major geological events in the distant past have

shaped the present drainage systems of Peninsular India:

(i) Subsidence of the western flank of the Peninsula leading to its

submergence below the sea during the early tertiary period. Generally, it
has disturbed the symmetrical plan of the river on either side of the
original watershed.
(ii) The upheaval of the Himalayas when the northern flank of the
peninsular block was subjected to subsidence and the consequent
trough faulting. The Narmada and The Tapi flow in trough faults
and fill the original cracks with their detritus materials. Hence, there
is a lack of alluvial and deltaic deposits in these rivers.

(iii) Slight tilting of the Peninsular block from northwest to the

southeastern direction gave orientation to the entire drainage system
towards the Bay of Bengal during the same period.
 It has three broad
divisions:

1. East Flowing rivers:

Mahanadi, Subarnarekha, Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery are

major Rivers of Peninsular India.

While Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery originate from the Western

Ghats, While Subarnarekha emerges from Ranchi plateau.

They drain into the Bay of Bengal. All except Subarnarekha

form Delta.
 Mahanadi River:

The Mahanadi rises near Sihawa in Raipur district of Chhattisgarh

and runs through Odisha to discharge its water into the Bay of Bengal.

It is 851 km long and its catchment area spreads over 1.42 lakh sq.
km. Some inland navigation is carried on in the lower course of this
river.

Fifty-three per cent of the drainage basin of this river lies in Madhya
Pradesh and Chhattisgarh, while 47 per cent lies in Odisha.
 Godavari River:

The Godavari is the largest peninsular river system. It is also called

the Dakshin Ganga.
It rises in the Nasik district of Maharashtra and discharges its water
into the Bay of Bengal.
Godavari tributaries run through the states of Maharashtra, Madhya
Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha and Andhra Pradesh.
It is navigable only in the deltaic stretch. The river after Rajamundri
splits into several branches forming a large delta.
It is 1,465 km long with a catchment area spreading
over 3.13 lakh sq km 49 per cent of this, lies in
Maharashtra, 20 per cent in Madhya Pradesh and
Chhattisgarh, and the rest in Andhra Pradesh.
The Penganga, the Indravati, the Pranhita, and the
Manjra are its principal tributaries.
The Godavari is subjected to heavy floods in its lower
reaches to the south of Polavaram, where it forms a
picturesque gorge.
Krishna River:

The Krishna is the second-largest east-flowing Peninsular

River which rises near Mahabaleshwar in Sahyadri. Its total
length is 1,401 km.
The Koyna, the Tungabhadra and the Bhima are its major
tributaries.
Of the total catchment area of the Krishna, 27 per cent lies in
Maharashtra, 44 per cent in Karnataka and 29 per cent in
Andhra Pradesh.
Kaveri River:

The Kaveri rises in Brahmagiri hills (1,341m) of Kogadu district

in Karnataka.
Its length is 800 km and it drains an area of 81,155 sq. km.
Since the upper catchment area receives rainfall during the
southwest monsoon season (summer) and the lower part during the
northeast monsoon season (winter), the river carries water
throughout the year with comparatively less fluctuation than the
other peninsular rivers.
About 3 per cent of the Kaveri basin falls in Kerala, 41 per cent in
Karnataka and 56 per cent in Tamil Nadu.
Its important tributaries are the Kabini, the Bhavani and the
Amravati.
The Baitarni, the Brahmani, the Vamsadhara, the Penner, the Palar
and the Vaigai are other east flowing important rivers.
2.West flowing rivers:

Narmada, Tapi, Sabarmati, Mahi Rivers are major west-flowing rivers

which empty into the Arabian Sea and form estuaries.

Narmada River:

 The Narmada originates on the western flank of the

Amarkantak plateau at a height of about 1,057 m.
 While flowing in a rift valley between the Satpura in the south
and the Vindhyan range in the north, it forms a picturesque
gorge in marble rocks and Dhuandhar waterfall near Jabalpur.
 After flowing a distance of about 1,312 km, it meets the Arabian
Sea south of Bharuch, forming a broad 27 km long estuary. Its
catchment area is about 98,796 sq. km.
 The Sardar Sarovar Project along with other dams has been
constructed on this river under Narmada Multipurpose project.
Tapi River:

The Tapi is an important westward flowing river. It originates from Multai

in the Betul district of Madhya Pradesh.
Just like the Narmada, it flows in rift valley south of Satpura range. It is
724 km long and drains an area of 65,145 sq. km.
Nearly 79 per cent of its basin is in Maharashtra, 15 per cent in Madhya
Pradesh and the remaining 6 per cent in Gujarat.
Sabarmati and Mahi are the two famous rivers of Gujarat. They emerge
from Aravali range and flows into the Gulf of Khambhat into the Arabian
Sea.
3.West flowing rivers of Sahyadris:
Hundreds of small rivers flow from the Western Ghats to
Arabian sea along the west coast of India.
They cover only a few kilometres and unable to form the
Delta. These rivers are Mondovi, Zuari, Kalindi, Sharavati etc.
Goa has two important rivers -One is Mandovi or Mahadayi
and the other is Juari.
The Shetruniji is one such river which rises near Dalkahwa
in Amreli district.
The Bhadra originates near Aniali village in Rajkot district.
The Dhadhar rises near Ghantar village in Panchmahal district.
The Vaitarna rises from the Trimbak hills in Nasik district at
an elevation of 670 m.
The Kalinadi rises from Belgaum district and falls in the
Karwar Bay. The source of Bedti river lies in Hubli Dharwar
and traverses a course of 161 km.
The Sharavati is another important river in Karnataka
flowing towards the west. The Sharavati originates in
Shimoga district of Karnataka and drains a catchment area of
2,209 sq. km.
Sharavati forms India’s highest waterfall called Jog fall,
which is used for hydroelectricity generation.
Kerala has a narrow coastline. The longest river of Kerala,
Bharathapuzha rises near Annamalai hills and flows through the
Palakkad gap.
It is also known as Ponnani. It drains an area of 5,397 sq. km.
The Periyar is the second largest river of Kerala. Its catchment
area is 5,243 sq. km. There is a marginal difference in the
catchment area of the Bhartapuzha and the Periyar rivers.
Another river in Kerala worth mentioning is the Pamba river
which falls in the Vembanad lake after traversing a course of 177
km.
Climate refers to the sum total of weather conditions and
variations over a large area for a long period of time (more than
thirty years).

Weather refers to the state of the atmosphere over an area at

any point of time.
The elements of weather and climate are the same, i.e.
temperature, atmospheric pressure, wind, humidity and
precipitation.
On the basis of the monthly atmospheric conditions, the year is
divided into seasons such as:
 Winter
 Summer
 Rainy Seasons
Climatic Controls
The climate of any place depends on the following factors:
1) Latitude The amount of solar energy received
varies according to latitude due to the curvature of the
earth. That's why air temperature generally decreases
from the equator towards the poles.
2) Altitude The atmosphere becomes less dense and
temperature decreases when we go to the higher
altitude from the earth surface. This is the reason why
hills are cooler during summers.
3) Pressure and wind system The pressure and
wind system of any area depends on the latitude and
altitude of the place. It influences the temperature and
rainfall pattern.
4) Distance from the sea The sea exerts a
moderating influence on the climate. As the
distance from the sea increases, its moderating
influence decreases and people experience
extreme weather conditions. This condition is
known as continentality i.e. very hot during
summers and very cold during winters.
5) Ocean currents Ocean currents along with
onshore winds affect the climate of the coastal
areas. For example, any coastal area with warm
or cold currents flowing past it, will be warmed
or cooled if the winds are onshore.
6) Relief features Relief plays a major role in
determining the climate of a place. High
mountains act as barriers for cold or hot winds.
They may also cause precipitation if they are high
enough and lie in the path of rain-bearing winds.
Precipitation is any form of moisture which falls
to the earth. It includes rain, snow, hail and sleet.
Factors Affecting India's
Climate

Latitude
The Tropic of Cancer passes through the middle of the
country from the Rann of kachchh in the west to
Mizoram in the east. India's climate has characteristics
of tropical as well as subtropical climates.

Altitude
India has mountains to the north and also has a vast
coastal area where the maximum elevation is about 30
metres. Owing to the mountains, subcontinent
experiences comparatively milder winters as compared
to central Asia.
Pressure and Winds
The climate and weather conditions in India are governed by
the following atmospheric conditions:
 Pressure and surface winds
 Upper air circulation
 Western cyclonic disturbances and tropical cyclones
Air moves from the high-pressure area over the southern
Indian Ocean, in a south-easterly direction, crosses the
equator and turns right towards the low-pressure areas
over the Indian subcontinent. These are known as the
Southwest Monsoon winds. These winds blow over the
warm oceans, gather moisture and bring widespread
rainfall over the territories of India.
Jet System
 These are the high altitude winds in the atmosphere.
Their speed varies from 110 km/hr in summer and
184 km/hr in winter.
 They have located over 27°-30° North Latitude
(Westly) Jetstream
 Easterly Jetstream blows over India over 14°N
Latitude.
The Indian Monsoon
The climate of India is strongly influenced by monsoon winds. The
seasonal reversal of the wind system is known as “monsoon”. The
monsoons are experienced in the tropical area roughly between 20°
N and 20° S. Go through the following facts to understand the
mechanism of the monsoons in a better way:
1. The differential heating and cooling of land and water creates
low pressure on the landmass of India while the seas around
experience comparatively high pressure.
2. The shift of the position of Inter Tropical Convergence Zone
(ITCZ) in summer, over the Ganga plain, is also known as the
monsoon-trough during the monsoon season.
3. The presence of the high-pressure area, east of Madagascar,
approximately at 20°S over the Indian Ocean affects the Indian
Monsoon.
4. The Tibetan plateau gets intensely heated during summer,
which results in strong vertical air currents and the formation
of low pressure over the plateau at about 9 km above sea level.
5. The movement of the westerly jet stream to the north of the
Himalayas and the presence of the tropical easterly jet stream
over the Indian peninsula during summer also impact the
Indian Monsoon.
The changes in the pressure conditions over the southern oceans
also affect the monsoons. The irregularly periodic variation in
winds and sea surface temperatures over the tropical eastern Pacific
Ocean that affects the climate of the tropics and subtropics is known
as Southern Oscillation or SO.
The Onset of the Monsoon and Withdrawal
The duration of the monsoon is between 100-120 days from
early June to mid-September. Around the time of its arrival,
the normal rainfall increases suddenly and continues
constantly for several days, which s known as the "burst” of
the monsoon.
Arrival of the Monsoon in different parts of India
The monsoon arrives at the southern tip of the Indian
peninsula generally by the 1st week of June. Subsequently, it
proceeds into two – the Arabian Sea branch and the Bay of
Bengal branch.
 The Arabian Sea branch reaches Mumbai on approximately the
10th of June.
 The Bay of Bengal branch arrives in Assam in the 1st week of June.
 By mid-June, the Arabian Sea branch of the monsoon arrives over
Saurashtra-Kuchchh and the central part of the country.
 The Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal branches of the monsoon
merge over the north-western part of the Ganga plains.
 Delhi receives the monsoon showers from the Bay of Bengal
branch by the end of June.
 By the first week of July, western Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana
and eastern Rajasthan experience the monsoon.
 By mid-July, the monsoon reaches Himachal Pradesh and the rest
of the country.
Withdrawal of the Monsoon
The withdrawal of the monsoon begins in north-western states
of India by early September. By mid-October, it withdraws
completely from the northern half of the peninsula. From north
to the south, withdrawal of monsoon takes place from the first
week of December to the first week of January. By early
December, the monsoon has withdrawn from the rest of the
country.
 The Seasons
4 main seasons can be identified in India:
1. The cold weather season (Winter)
2. The hot weather season (Summer)
3. The advancing monsoon (Rainy Season)
4. The retreating monsoon with some regional variations (Transition
Season)
Let's discuss each of them in detail:
The Cold Weather Season (Winter) Winter begins from mid-November in
northern India and stays till February
 December and January are the coldest months in the northern part of
India.
 The temperature decreases from south to the north.
 Days are warm and nights are cold.
 The weather is marked by clear sky, low temperatures and low humidity
and feeble, variable winds.
 This season is extremely important for the cultivation of ‘rabbi' crops.
The Hot Weather Season (Summer)
From March to May, hot weather season is observed in India.
The summer months experience rising temperature and falling
air pressure in the northern part of the country. A striking
feature of the hot weather season is the 'loo'. Loo is the strong,
gusty, hot, dry winds blowing during the day over the north
and north-western India.
Towards the close of the summer season, pre-monsoon
showers come which help in the early
opening of mangoes, and are often referred to as 'mango
showers'.
Advancing Monsoon (The Rainy Season)
South-east trade winds originate over the warm
subtropical areas of the southern oceans. They
cross the equator and blow in a south-westerly
direction entering the Indian peninsula as the south-
west monsoon. The monsoon winds cover the
country in about a month. Mawsynram in the
southern ranges of the Khaki Hills receives the
highest average rainfall in the world.
A phenomenon associated with the monsoon is its tendency
to have 'breaks' in rainfall. These breaks in monsoon are
related to the movement of the monsoon trough. The
trough and its axis keep on moving northward or
southward and determine the spatial distribution of rainfall.
The frequency and intensity of tropical depressions also
determine the amount and duration of monsoon rains. The
monsoon is known for its uncertainties. The alternation of
dry and wet spells vary in intensity, frequency and
duration.
Retreating/Post Monsoons (The Transition Season)
The months of October-November form a period of
transition from hot rainy season to dry winter conditions.
The retreat of the monsoon is marked by clear skies and
rise in temperature. While day temperatures are high,
nights are cool and pleasant. Owing to the conditions of
high temperature and humidity, the weather becomes
rather oppressive during the day. This is commonly
known as ‘October heat'. In the second half of October,
the mercury begins to fall rapidly in northern India.
Distribution of Rainfall
1. Parts of the western coast and north-eastern India receive
over about 400 cm of rainfall annually.
2. Rainfall is less than 60 cm in western Rajasthan and
adjoining parts of Gujarat, Haryana and Punjab.
3. Rainfall is low in the interior of the Deccan plateau, and
east of the Sahyadris.
4. Snowfall is restricted to the Himalayan region.
5. The annual rainfall is highly variable from year to year.
Natural Vegetation
✘ Refers to plant community that has been left undisturbed
over a long time, so as to allow its individual species to
adjust themselves to climate and soil conditions has fully
has possible.
✘ Himalayan heights are marked with temperate vegetation;
the western Ghats and the Andaman Nicobar Islands have
tropical rain forests, the deltaic regions have tropical
forests and mangroves.
✘ The desert and semi desert areas of Rajasthan are known
for cactii , a wide variety of bushes and Thorny vegetation
The Type and thickness of
natural vegetation varies from
place to place because of the
variation in these factors.
Temperature
Moisture
slope
Thickness of soil
1. Types of forests
 Tropical Evergreen and semi and semi Evergreen
forests
 Tropical Deciduous forests
 Tropical Thorn forests
 Montane Forests
 Littoral and swamp forests.
 Tropical Evergreen and Semi Evergreen forests

✘ Found in the western slope of the western Ghats, hills of

the northeastern region and the Andaman and Nicobar
islands found in warm and humid areas with an annual
perception of over 200 CM and mean annual temperature
above 22 C.
✘ Well stratified with layers closer to the ground and are
covered with shrubs and creepers with short structure
trees followed by tall Varity of trees.
✘ Tree reach great height up to 60m or above.
✘ There is no definite time for tree to shed their leaves
flowering and fruition.
✘ As such these forests appear green all the year round.
✘ Species found in these forests include rosewood,
mahogony aini , ebony, etc.
IV . The delta wetlands and lagoons of India’s east coast
(Chilika Lakes ).
V . The freshwater marshes of the Genetic plain

VI . The floodplains of the Brahmaputra ; the marshes and

swamps in the hills of northeast India and the
Himalayan foothills;
VII. The lakes and rivers of the montane region of the
Kashmir and Ladak , and
VIII . The mangrove forest and other wetland of the island
arcs of the Andaman and Nicobar Island Mangroves
grow along the costs in the salt marshes , tidal creeks ,
mud flats and estuaries.
The semi evergreen
 Found in this less rainy parts of these regions.
 Such forests have a mixture of evergreen and moist
deciduous trees.
 The undergrowing climbers provide an evergreen to
character to these forests .
 Main species are white cedar , hollock and kail.
 The British were aware of the economic value of the
forests in India , hence large scale exploitation of
these forests was started .
 The structure of forests was also changed.
 The Oak forests in Gharwal and Kumaon were
replaced by pine which was needed to lay railway
line.
 Forests were also cleared for introducing plantations
Tropical Deciduous Forests
 These are the most wisespread forests in India.
 They are also called the monsoon forests.
 They spread over regions which receive rainfall
between 70-200 cm.
 On the basic of the availability of water , these
forests are further divided into moist and dry
deciduous.
The moist deciduous
 Forests are more pronounced in the regions which record
rainfall between 100-200 cm
 These forests are found in the northeastern states along the
foothills of Himalayas eastern slopes of the western Ghats and
Odisha.
 Teak , sal , shisam, hurra mahua , amla, semul Kusum , and
sandalwood, etc. are the main species of these forest.
Dry deciduous forest
 Covers vast areas of the country , where rainfall
ranges between 70-100 cm.
 Found in rainier areas of the peninsula and the
plains of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
 The dry season begins the trees shed their leaves
completely and the forest appears like a vast
grassland with naked trees all around.
 Tendu, Palas , amaltas, bel, khair axlewood, etc.
 Are the common trees forests.
Tropical Thorn Forests
 In the areas which receive rainfall less than 50 cm
These consist of a variety of grasses and shrubs.
 It includes semi arid areas of south west Punjab
Haryana , Rajasthan, Gujarat , Madhya Pradesh and
Uttar Pradesh.
 Plants remains leafless for most part of the year and
give an expression of scrub vegetation.
 Babool, Ber , and wild date plam , Khair, Neem ,
Khejri, Palas etc.
 Tussocky grass grows up to height of 2m as the
under growth.
1. Montane Forests
 In Monotonous areas the decrease in temperature
with increasing altitude leads to a corresponding
change in natural vegetation.
 Mountain forests can be classified into two types the
northern mountain forests and the southern
mountain forests.
 The Himalaya ranges show a succession of
vegetation from the tropical to the tundra , which
change in with the altitude .
 Deciduous forests are found in the foothills of the
Himalayas.
1. The Southern mountain forests
 Found the tree distinct areas of peninsular India viz;
the western Ghats the windhyas and the Nilgris.
 As they are closer to the tropics and only 1500 m
above the sea level vegetation is temperate in the
higher regions of the western Ghat espcially in
Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka.
 The temperate forests are called sholas in the
Nilgiris , Anaimalai and palani hills .
 Same of the other trees of this forests of economic
significance include magnolia , laurel , cinchona and
wattle.
 Such forests are also found in the stapura and the
Maikal ranges
Littoral and swamp forests.
 India has a rich variety of wetland habitats.
 About 70 % of this comprises areas unser paddy
cultivation.
 Two sites – chilika Lake and keoladeo National
park are protected as water flow habits under the
convention of wetlands of international importance
(Ramser Convention)
 The Countries wetlands have been grouped into
eight categories VIZ:-
I. The reservoirs of the Deccan Plateau in the south
together with the lagoons and other wetlands of the
southern west coast.
II. The vast saline expanses of Rajasthan Gujarat and the
Gulf of the Kuchchh
III. Freshwater lakes and reservoirs from Gujarat eastward
Forest Cover In India
 The forest area cover 23.28% of the total land area
of the country .
 It is important of the note that the forest area and the
actual forest cover are not the same .
 The forest area is the area notified and recorded as
the forest land irrespective of the existence of trees
while the actual actual forest cover is the area
occupied by forest with canopy.
 The former is based on the records of the state
revanu department while the latter is based on aerial
photographs and satellites imageries .
 According to the India state of the forest report 2011
the actual forest cover in India is only 21.05%
 There are 15 state where the forest cover is more
than one- their of the total area which is the basic
1. Forest Conservation
 A forest policy ion 1952 which was further modified in 1988.
 According to the new forest policy the government will
emphasise sustainable forest management in order to conserve
and expend forests reserves on the on eland and two meet the
needs of local people on the other.
 The forest policy aimed at :-
I. Bringing 33% of the geographical areas under forest cover.
II. Maintaining environmental stability and to restore forests were
ecological balance was disturbed
III. Conserving the natural heritage of the country its biological
diversity genetic pool .
IV. Checks soil erosion extension of the desert lands and reduction of
floods and droughts.
V. Increasing the forest cover through social forestry and afforestation
Soils in India
 Soil is the uppermost layer of Earth’s crust.
 Soil is the medium in which plants grow and thus it
supports the lives on earth.
 A number of factors contribute to the soil formation and
fertility viz.
 Various forces of nature such as change in temperature,
actions of running water, wind and glaciers, activities of
decomposers etc. contribute to the formation of soil
 Chemical and organic changes which take place in the soil
are equally important
Types of Soils
Found in India
Alluvial Soil
 Formed by depositional work of rivers valleys, flood plains &
deltas
 Highly fertile Riverine soils → Transported type
 Largest Tract → Satluj Ganga Plains
 Less connection with Parent material
 Rich in Potash but deficient in Nitrogen & Humus content
 Good for both rabi and kharif crops
 In delta region, they are ideal for jute cultivation
 Best for cereals & Pulses
 Khadar → Deposited by flood annually (Fresh silt) → non
porous, clayey and loamy
 Bhangar → Above flood level; well drained & drier → coarse in
nature, contain kankar (lime nodules), pebbles, gravels
 Forms 22.16 % of the total land area of the country.
Black Soil
✘ Formed By solidification of Lava
✘ Mainly found in Deccan Plateau
✘ Also known as black cotton soil or Regur soil
✘ Black colour is due to its iron content, derived from
plutonic lava materials
✘ Highly fertile (< Alluvial)
✘ Residual type of Soil
✘ Deficient in organic content, phosphorus, nitrogen
✘ Rich in lime and iron, magnesia and alumina; also
contains Potash
✘ Highly clayey and impermeable → Highly moisture
retentive
✘ Ploughed in dry season as on evaporation cracks
develop for better seed penetration
✘ Regions → Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh,
Andhra Pradesh, Parts of Tamil Nadu
✘ Forms 16.6 % of the total land area of the country
Red Soil
 Formed by weathering of Igneous (crystalline) &
metamorphic rocks
 Less fertile than Alluvial & Black soils
 Lacks water retentive capacity
 Reddish in color due to presence of Feo (Ferrous
oxide)
 Looks Yellow in Hydrated form
 Transported type of soil
 Deficient in nitrogen, lime, magnesia, humus and
phosphate
 Rich in potash and become fertile with the proper use
of fertilizers and irrigation
 Are porous, aerated & friable in nature
 Regions → Periphery areas of Deccan Plateau viz.
Chhotanagpur plateau, Telangana, Nilgiris, Tamil
Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh
 Suitable for the cultivation of millets, pulses,
Linseed, tobacco etc.
 Forms 10.6% of the total land area of the country
 Laterite Soil

✘ Formed under conditions of high temperature and heavy

rainfall with alternate wet and dry periods
✘ Thus its formation takes place strictly under monsoon
conditions
✘ Formed by leaching away of siliceous matter
✘ With rain, Lime & Silica leaches away, leaving insoluble
Feo & Al compounds → Desilication
✘ Humus content of soil is fast removed by bacteria which
thrive well in high temp.
✘ Residual type of soils, formed by leaching in areas of
heavy rain
✘ Mainly found in Highland or Plateaus with heavy rainfall
✘ Not useful for agriculture except for plantation crops like
Tea, Rubber, Coffee & Cashews
✘ Used as building material & in making bricks
✘ Are of Coarse texture with soft & friable nature
✘ Poor in Lime, Nitrogen, Magnesium & Humus content ;
Rich in Feo & Alumina
✘ Regions → Meghalaya, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu,
hilly regions of Assam, Rajmahal hills and Chhotanagpur
plateau
✘ Forms 7.2 % of the total land area of the country
Saline / Alkaline Soil
✘ Found in arid or semi-arid conditions along with
water logged areas
✘ Highly saline due to dry climate, poor drainage &
high evaporation
✘ Infertile & does not support vegetative growth
✘ Found at Bihar, Rajasthan, UP., Punjab, Haryana,
Maharashtra
✘ Salinity also Caused due to excessive irrigation in dry
conditions which promotes capillary action
Arid Soil
✘ Found in areas with rainfall < 50 cm
✘ Sandy, porous, coarse & rich in salts
✘ Generally saline due to high evaporation
✘ Covered with thick brown mantle which inhibits soil
growth
✘ Originated from the mechanical disintegration of the
ground rock of by deposition by wind
✘ Low rainfall and high temperature are reasons for the
formation of this soil
✘ Mainly in SW Haryana & Punjab and W – Rajasthan
✘ Actually fertile, water being the only limiting factor
✘ Cereals grown are Jowar, Bajra, Ragi & Oil
seeds → Drought resistance crops
✘ Forms 3.9 % of the total land area of the country
Mountain Soils

 Prone to soil erosion → top soil getting washed away due

to the steep slopes of the mountains after a heavy rainfall
 These soils are mostly thin and infertile
 Include peat, meadow and forest hill soils
 Rich in humus but deficient in potash, phosphorous and
lime
 Generally loamy & silty on valley side and coarser in
upper slopes
 Useful for Tea, coffee, spices and tropical fruits
 Regions → Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh,
Uttaranchal, Assam, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh
Peaty / Organic Soil
 Found in high rainfall + high humid areas of WB, Orissa
& Kerala
 Rich in Humus & organic content, Sometimes alkaline
too
 Heavy, Dark & acidic

Salinity of soils
✘ Predominance of Chloride & sulfates of N, Ca & Mg, Esp.
of NaCO3
✘ Decreases soil fertility, Quality of fodder becomes poor,
Difficulties in Housing & road construction
✘ Addition of Gypsum (Converts Alkalis to compounds),
Addition of rice husk & rice straw also counters alkalinity
by forming light acids
✘ Crop rotation involving Daincha (Green Fodder) also
counters salinity
Terrace Farming
✘ On hilly slopes, terraces act as bunds and prevent the soil from
being washed away
✘ Farming is done on a unique step like structure and the force of
water running off is slowed down
✘ Terraced farming is more common on small farms and in
underdeveloped countries, since mechanized equipment is
difficult to deploy in this setting

Contour ploughing
✘ Land should never be ploughed up & down as it increases
erosion
✘ Ploughing along contours on a slope prevents soil being washed
away by rainwater or by surface run off
✘ Contours act like bunds and thus prevents soil erosion by
allowing water to slowly penetrate the soil
✘ Terraces are leveled into step like small fields with even slope
Afforestation
✘ Planting of trees along the edges of the fields, the waste
land and on steep slopes to prevent soil erosion
✘ Also to enhance the capacity of the soil to retain water

Shelter Belts

 A line of trees or shrubs planted to protect an area,

especially a field of crops, from fierce weather
 Farmers plant trees in several rows to check wind
erosion
 Also known as wind breaks
Cover crops / Crop rotations
✘ Cover crops such as legumes, white turnip, radishes and
other species are rotated with cash crops to blanket the soil
year-round
✘ Act asgreen manurethat replenishes nitrogen and other
critical nutrients
✘ Also help suppress weeds & increase soil fertility

Construction of Dams

✘ Rivers causes soil erosion

✘ Dams are built in the upper course of rivers to control
erosion of soil
✘ This would check the speed of water and thereby save soil
from erosion
Mulching
✘ Mulchesare materials placed over the soil surface to
maintain moisture and improve soil conditions
✘ A protective layer of a material that is spread on top of the
soil
✘ Mulches can either be organic — such as grass clippings,
straw, bark chips, and similar materials
✘ Or inorganic — such as stones, brick chips, and plastic
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