RESEARCH METHODS IN

PSYCHOLOGY
Research is a careful and
detailed study into a specific
problem, concern, or issue
using the scientific method.
Why psychologists conduct research?

Psychologists conduct research because psychological

researchers want to learn and understand human behavior.

It can be about how people think, how they feel, how they
behave, or some combination of these issues.
TYPES OF RESEARCH

APPLIED

BASIC
 PURE RESEARCH OR BASIC RESEARCH
It is conducted without any specific goal in mind. The main aim of pure
research is to advance knowledge and to identify or explain the relationship
between variables.

Thus, it advances fundamental knowledge about the world, and introduce new
theories, ideas, and principals as well as new ways of thinking. Pure research is
the source of most new information and ways of thinking in the world.
Basic (aka fundamental or pure) research is driven by a scientist's curiosity or
interest in a scientific question. The main motivation is to expand man's
knowledge, not to create or invent something. There is no obvious commercial
value to the discoveries that result from basic research.

For example, basic science investigations probe for answers to questions such as:
How did the universe begin?

What are protons, neutrons, and electrons composed of?

How do slime molds reproduce?

What is the specific genetic code of the fruit fly?

Pure research is driven by curiosity, intuition, and interest, and is
more exploratory in nature than applied research. Sometimes pure
research can act as a foundation for applied research.
 APPLIED RESEARCH

Applied research, unlike pure research, is conducted in order to solve a

specific and practical problem. Therefore, it tends to be descriptive in nature.

However, applied research is often based on basic research or pure research.

Since it is involved in solving practical problems.
For example, applied researchers may investigate ways to:
 improve agricultural crop production

 treat or cure a specific disease

 improve the energy efficiency of homes, offices, or modes of

transportation
 BASIS FOR COMPARISON BASIC RESEARCH APPLIED RESEARCH

Meaning Basic Research refers to the study Applied Research is the research
that is aimed at expanding the that is designed to solve specific
existing base of scientific practical problems or answer
knowledge. certain questions.

Nature Theoretical Practical

Utility Universal Limited

Concerned with Developing scientific knowledge Development of technology and

and predictions technique

Goal To add some knowledge to the To find out solution for the
existing one. problem at hand.
Main concepts in research
Theory

Hypothesis

Operational definition

Deduction

Induction
THEORY
A theory is a related set of concepts and principles about a
phenomenon and the purpose, explanation or prediction of the
phenomenon.

Theory allows us to explain what we see and to figure out how to

bring about change. Theory enables us to identify a problem and to
plan a means for altering the situation.
HYPOTHESIS
It is a statement that can be tested about the topic of interest.

It is a testable statement which tells us about the causal

relationship between the two events or variables.
DEDUCTION

Deductive reasoning works from the more general to the more specific. Sometimes this is
informally called a "top-down" approach. We might begin with thinking up a theory about our
topic of interest.

We then narrow that down into more specific hypotheses that we can test. We narrow down even
further when we collect observations to address the hypotheses.

This ultimately leads us to be able to test the hypotheses with specific data -- a confirmation (or
not) of our original theories.
INDUCTION

Inductive reasoning works the other way, moving from specific observations to
broader generalizations and theories. Informally, we sometimes call this a "bottom
up" approach.

In inductive reasoning, we begin with specific observations and measures, begin to

detect patterns and regularities, formulate some tentative hypotheses that we can
explore, and finally end up developing some general conclusions or theories.
OPERATIONAL DEFINITION
An operational definition, when applied to data collection, is a clear,
concise detailed definition of a measure.

All psychological concepts and labels, like learning, memory,

motivation, personality, etc., are inside in a human’s mind/brain.
Therefore, to study and measure them you need to measure something
that reflects these processes and that is known as operational definition.
Example of operational definition
For example, suppose one wanted to study happiness. To study it, one
must measure it.

The researcher operationalize happiness to count smiles.

Happiness can be measured by counting the number of smiles a

person emits during an observation period of specified length.
Other examples
anxiety could be defined in dictionary terms as “a state of being uneasy,
apprehensive, or worried.”

An operational definition of the term could include observable measures such as:
◦ sweating palms (observable as sweat gland activity),

◦ increased heart rate (observable with heartbeat recording),

◦ dilated pupils, and other observable physiological changes.

◦ It could also be a self-rating scale or a paper and-pencil questionnaire.

 STEPS OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD
1. Purpose/Question
Ask a question.

2. Research
Conduct background research. Write down your sources so you can cite your references.

3. Hypothesis
Propose a hypothesis which is a sort of educated guess about what you expect.
4. Experiment

Design and perform an experiment to test your hypothesis through independent

and dependent variables.

5. Data/Analysis

Record observations and analyze what the data means. Often, you'll prepare a
table or graph of the data.

6. Conclusion

Conclude whether to accept or reject your hypothesis. Communicate your results.

EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
It is the most scientific and objective form of method.

Use to study cause and effect variables.

In an experiment, there is a deliberate manipulation of one variable which is

an INDEPENDENT VARIABLE (IV) and the changes are seen on the
DEPENDENT VARIABLE (DV).

We have to keep all other variables constant, only IV could be changed.

For example, suppose we want to investigate which of two methods is more
successful at teaching children to read.

The aspect that we vary is called the independent variable (IV) and we change this
in a very precise way. In this example the teaching method is the independent
variable.

We call the factor which we then measure, in our example it would be some measure
of the children reading ability, the dependent variable (DV), because, if our ideas
are correct, it depends on the independent variable. In our example, the children
reading ability depends on the teaching method used
Elements of experimental method
Independent variable (IV): Variable the experimenter manipulates
(i.e. changes) – assumed to have a direct effect on the dependent
variable.

Dependent variable (DV): Variable the experimenter measures, after

making changes to the IV (which are assumed to affect the DV).

So IV is the cause and DV is the effect.

Q. It is predicted that certain nutritional drink influences
performance on a physical activity.
IV:
DV:
Experimental Group: it is the group which receives the manipulated
IV.

Control Group: a group which does not receive the manipulated IV.

Placebo Group: a group which are believed to be given manipulated

IV but actually they are not.
Extraneous variable: undesirable variables which might
influence an experiment.

For example: prior knowledge about an experiment, noise,

lightning, temperature.

Random Assignment: is an experimental technique ensures

that each participant or subject has an equal chance of being
placed in any group.
Advantages of an experimental research

1. The most appropriate way for drawing causal conclusions regarding

variables taken for an experiment, for the treatment as well.

2. It is a basic, straightforward, efficient type of research.

3. Experimental research designs are repeatable and therefore, results can be

checked and verified.

4. Due to the controlled environment of experimental research, better results

are often achieved.
Disadvantages of an experimental research

1. Experimental research can create artificial situations that do not

always represent real-life situations which could effect the results.

2. It may not be really possible to control all extraneous variables.

QUASI EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
Quasi experimental has no random assignment

 The independent variables are manipulative (such as the therapy

interventions).

Quasi experimental are also done in a naturalistic environment where

an event/ incident already occurred and data is taken after an event.
Examples
Does smoking cause cancer?

Did 9/11 cause an increase in prejudice against people of middle-

eastern decent?

Joint families/ nuclear families effects on children.

Earthquake victims

Flood victims
Quasi experiments are done because human characteristics
cannot be controlled every time and not always be
manipulated.

The behavior of human at times are complex which are

difficult for an experimenter to manipulate so it becomes
necessary for an experimenter to do research in a naturalistic
environment.
CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH
A correlation is simply defined as a relationship between two
variables. The whole purpose of using correlations in research is to
figure out which variables are connected.

Correlation research is looking for variables that seem to interact with

each other, so that when you can see one changing, you have an idea
of how the other will change.
Examples of Correlational Research
Relationship between hope and depression

Self - confidence and self –esteem

Intelligence and Academics

There are three types of correlations that are identified:

1. Positive correlation

2. Negative correlation

3. No correlation
Positive Correlation: is when an increase in one variable leads to an
increase in the other and a decrease in one leads to a decrease in the
other.

For example, the amount of money that a person possesses might

correlate positively with the number of cars he owns.
Negative Correlation: It is when an increase in one variable leads to
a decrease in another and vice versa.

For example, the level of education might correlate negatively with

crime. This means if by some way the education level is improved in
a country, it can lead to lower crime.
No correlation: Two variables are uncorrelated when a change in one
doesn't lead to a change in the other and vice versa.

For example, among millionaires, happiness is found to be

uncorrelated to money. This means an increase in money doesn't lead
to happiness.
A correlation coefficient is usually used during a correlational study.
It varies between +1 and -1. A value close to +1 indicates a strong
positive correlation while a value close to -1 indicates strong negative
correlation. A value near zero shows that the variables are
uncorrelated.
OBSERVATION
It is a type of research method which is watching what people do.

It can be closed ( which means people do not know they are being
observed) or

it can be disclosed (which means they are told by an experimenter

that they are being observed).
There are different types of observational methods:

1. Controlled Observations

2. Natural Observations

3. Participant Observation
1. Controlled Observation (structured observation)

Controlled observations are likely to be carried out in a psychology

laboratory. The researcher decides where the observation will take
place, at what time, with which participants, in what circumstances and
uses a standardized procedure. Participants are randomly allocated to
each independent variable group.
2. Naturalistic observation (unstructured observation)

It involves studying the spontaneous behavior of participants in natural

surroundings. The researcher simply records what they see in whatever
way they can.
For example:

Compared with controlled/structured methods it is like the

difference between studying wild animals in a zoo and studying
them in their natural habitat.
3. Participant Observation

It is a variant of the natural observation but in this type of observation researcher joins
in and becomes part of the group they are studying to get a deeper insight into their
lives.

For example
◦ if we want to do research on animals we would now not only be studying them in
their natural habitat but be living alongside them as well.

Participant observation could be closed or disclosed.

SURVEY
A survey is defined as a brief interview or discussion with
individuals about a specific topic.

It is the most frequent type of research method to collect information.

We get to know about opinions, likes/dislikes of people regarding

certain topic and it could be taken in the form of questionnaire,
interview and brief discussion.
Sources of survey could be telephone, internet polls, face to face.

Survey produce more biased results than observation method

Surveys have been used to get to know about the product preferences,
health care needs and political opinions.
CLINICAL METHODS: CASE HISTORY &
INTERVIEWING TECHNIQUES
Case history /case study

Case study in psychology refers to the use of a descriptive research

approach to obtain an in-depth analysis of a person, group, or
phenomenon. A variety of techniques may be employed including
personal interviews, direct-observation, psychometric tests, and
archival records.
Archival research is analyzing already collected data. It is looking at
what is already in hand and applying statistical measures to it to
describe the information in a simpler way.

Collected data could be library records, courthouse records, business

records or client records.
INTERVIEW TECHNIQUES

There are three fundamental types of research interviews:

Structured

Semi-structured and

Unstructured
1. Structured Interview

This is also known as a formal interview (like a job interview).

The questions are asked in a set / standardized order and the

interviewer will not deviate from the interview schedule or
probe beyond the answers received (so they are not flexible).

These are based on structured, closed-ended questions .

2. Unstructured Interview

They are sometimes called informal interviews.

An interview schedule might not be used, they will contain

open-ended questions that can be asked in any order.

Some questions might be added / missed as the Interview

progresses.
3. Semi -structured interviews

They are in-depth interviews (often called a 'conversation with

a purpose’).

The interview blends between the two other types of interview

- structured and unstructured which has both open ended and
closed ended questions.
ETHICS IN RESEARCH
Ethics refers to the correct rules of conduct necessary when carrying
out research. We have a moral responsibility to protect research
participants from harm.

Psychologists need to remember that they have a duty to respect the

rights and dignity of research participants. This means that they must
abide by certain moral principles and rules of conduct.
INFORMED CONSENT
Before the study begins the researcher must outline to the participants what the
research is about, and then ask their consent (i.e. permission) to take part.

An adult (18ys +) capable of giving permission to participate in a study can

provide consent.

Parents/legal guardians of minors can also provide consent to allow their

children to participate in a study.
DEBRIEF
After the research is over the participant should be able to
discuss the procedure and the findings with the psychologist.
They must be given a general idea of what the researcher
was investigating and why, and their part in the research
should be explained.
PROTECTION OF PARTICIPANTS
Researchers must ensure that those taking part in research
will not be caused distress.

They must be protected from physical and mental harm. This

means you must not embarrass, frighten, offend or harm
participants.
DECEPTION
This is where participants are misled or wrongly informed about the
aims of the research.

Types of deception include: (i) deliberate misleading, e.g. staged

manipulations in field settings, deceptive instructions;

(ii) deception by omission, e.g., failure to disclose full information

about the study, or creating ambiguity.
CONFIDENTIALITY
Participants, and the data gained from them must be kept
anonymous unless they give their full consent. No names
must be used in a research report.
WITHDRAWAL FROM AN INVESTIGATION
Participants should be able to leave a study at any time if they feel
uncomfortable. They should also be allowed to withdraw their data.

They should be told at the start of the study that they have the right
to withdraw. They should not have pressure placed upon them to
continue if they do not want to.