Introduction to Physics

Syllabus
 What is PHYSICS??
Branch of science concerning the study of natural phenomena, properties of
matter and energy also the connection between them.

Physics – Come from the Latin word physica meaning the science of
natural things.

Involves experimental observations and quantitative measurements.

 Natural Phenomena??

Lightning and thunder.

Sea waves and tides.
Rain and sunshine.
Earthquake and hurricane.

Lightning is electric current

 The astronaut and Earth
are both in free-fall

Dispersion of light by a
prism
 Physics is Quantitative
●
Experimental results in physics are numerical
measurements and theories.
●
Use mathematics to give numerical results to
match these measurements.

What is the differences between physics and

math?
 Physics

Ultimately concerned with descriptions of the material world, it

tests its theories by comparing the predictions of its theories with
data produced from the observations and experimentation.

Mathematics

Concerned with abstract logical patterns, not limited by those

observed in the real world.
 Physical Quantities

A physical quantity is a quantity

that can be measured.

A physical quantity can be

divided into base quantity and
derived quantity.
 Base Quantities

Base quantities are the quantities that are conventionally accepted as

functionally independent of one another.

It is a quantity that cannot be defined in term of other physical quantity.

The base quantities and its units are as in the table below:
SI Units
 Derived Quantities
A derived quantity is a Physics quantity that is not a base quantity.

It is the quantities which derived from the base quantities through

multiplying and/or dividing them.

Speed is derived from dividing distance by time.

 Derived Quantities

The derived unit is a combination of base units through

multiplying and/or dividing them.
 Derived Quantities

Example 1: Find the derived unit of density.

 Derived Quantities

Quantities derived from base quantities (through mathematical combinations).

Volume = Length x Breath x Height = m3

Density = Mass ÷ Volume = kg m-3

Velocity = Displacement ÷ Time = m s-1

Acceleration = Velocity ÷ Time = m s-2

Force = Mass x Acceleration = kg m s-2

Unit Conversion
Area and Volume
 Unit Conversion
Example 2
Convert the unit of length, area and volume below to the units
given.

a) 7.2 m = ____________cm
b) 0.32 m2 = ____________cm2
c) 0.0012 m3 = ____________cm3
d) 5.6 cm = ____________m
e) 350 cm2 = ____________m2
f) 45000 cm3 = ____________m3
 Unit Conversion
Example 3
Complete the following unit conversion:

a) 12 kmh-1 = __________ ms-1

b) 12 ms-1 = __________ kmh-1
Unit Conversion
Example 3
Answers:
 Prefixes
Prefixes are the preceding factor used to represent very small and very large
physical quantities in SI units.

Simplifies description of physical quantities that are very big or ver small
without losing data.
Prefixes
Prefixes
 Scientific Notation (Standard Form)
1) Scientific notation (also known as Standard index notation) is a
convenient way to write very small or large numbers.

2) In this notation, numbers are separated into two parts, a real number with
an absolute value between 1 and 10 and an order of magnitude value written
as a power of 10.

3) Physical quantities that are very big or very small need to be written in the
standard form so that it is neat, simple and easy to read.
Scientific Notation (Standard Form)
Q x 10n

where 1 ≤ Q < 10 and n is an integer

Examples:

0.000000696 m = 6.96 x 10-7 m

911 000 000 kg = 9.11 x 108 kg

 Scalar and Vector Quantities

Scalar Quantity
Scalars are quantities which are fully described by a magnitude
alone.
Magnitude is the numerical value of a quantity.
Examples of scalar quantities are distance, speed, mass, volume,
temperature, density and energy.

Vector Quantity
Vectors are quantities which are fully described by both a
magnitude and a direction.
Examples of vector quantities are displacement, velocity,
acceleration, force, momentum, and magnetic field.
 Resultant vector quantities can be
found by graphical methods to
account for the magnitudes and
directions of each individual like vector
quantities involved.
 Example 1
Categorize each quantity below as being either
a vector or a scalar.

Speed, velocity, acceleration, distance,

displacement, energy, electrical charge,
density, volume, length, momentum, time,
temperature, force, mass, power, work,
impulse.
 Scalar Vector

speed
distance
energy
electrical charge velocity
density acceleration
volume displacement
length momentum
time force
temperature impulse
mass
power
work
 Measurements

Measurements are trials to determine the actual value of a

physical quantity.

Error

An error is an uncertainly in a measurement.

 Measurements
Accuracy measures how close a hit is to the target.

Consistency measures how close together a group of hits is to the average

value. If they are far apart from each other, they are not consistent.

We want results that are both accurate and consistent.

Consistent, less accurate Accurate, less consistent Not accurate, not Accurate & consistent
consistent
 Measurements
Accuracy measures how close a hit is to the target.

1. The accuracy of a measurement is the approximation of the

measurement to the actual value for a certain quantity of
Physics.
2. The measurement is more accurate if its number of significant
figures increases.
3. Table above shows that the micrometer screw gauge is more
accurate than the other measuring instruments.
 Measurements
Accuracy measures how close a hit is to the target.

The accuracy of a measurement can be

increased by:

1. Taking a number of repeat readings

to calculate the mean value of the
reading.
2. Avoiding the end errors or zero
errors.
3. Taking into account the zero and
parallax errors.
4. Using more sensitive equipment
such as a vernier caliper to replace
a ruler.
5. Avoid parallax error
 Measurements

Consistency measures how close together a group of hits is to the average

value. If they are far apart from each other, they are not consistent.

1. Precision is the ability of an instrument in measuring a quantity in

a consistent manner with only a small relative deviation between
readings.
2. The precision of a reading can be indicated by its relative
deviation.
3. The relative deviation is the percentage of mean deviation for a set
of measurements and it is defined by the following formula:
 Consistency (Precision) in Measurement
· Measurements are said to be consistent when the values of the measurements are close to each other –
meaning, the deviation (i.e. the difference) of each measured value from the mean value (of all measured
values) is small and the spread (i.e. the difference between the 2 outermost values) is small.

· Therefore, high consistency means:

o Small deviation from the mean value; and,
o Small spread between the 2 outmost values.

· Consistent measurements are considered precise but not necessarily accurate – they are only accurate if
their mean value is close to the true and actual value.

· Consistent measuring instrument is one with ability to register the same or nearly the same readings
when a measurement is made repeatedly.

· To improve consistency:
o Avoid parallax errors;
o Exercise greater care and consistency in taking readings;
o Avoid using defective measuring instrument
 Measurements Instruments
Sensitivy = how small a change in reading that can be measured by an
instrument

Ruler
Low, 1 mm

Vernier caliper measuring internal or

external diameter of
Medium, 0.1 mm round objects

Micrometer screw gauge measure very small

High, 0.01 mm readings
 Sensitivity of Measuring Instrument
· Sensitivity of a measuring instrument is defined as the capability of that
instrument 1) to respond and/or 2) to register small amounts or differences of the
targeted stimuli (e.g. heat) or physical quantity (e.g. temperature) respectively.

· Sensitivity depends on:

o The smallest division on its scale – the finer, the more sensitive (e.g. the
smallest division on the thimble scale of micrometer screw gauge is 0.01mm
whereas that on the vernier scale of the vernier calipers is 0.01cm);

o The design of the instrument – e.g. the finer the capillary tube or the wall of
the bulb of the thermometer, the more sensitive it is; (2011 P1 Q2 at pg. 280)

o The choice of the responding material - e.g. alcohol is more sensitive

(expands more) to heat than mercury but it is colourless.

· Generally, measurements of large quantities do not require sensitive

measuring instrument. It is in the measurements of small quantities that sensitive
instruments are needed or the margins of errors can be significant.
Measurements Instruments

Vernier Caliper
The accuracy of the Vernier Callipers is 0.01 cm.

The outside and inside jaws are used to measure the external and internal
diameters respectively.

The depth of an object is measured using the tail.

 Reading:

= 1.2 + 0.03
= 1.23cm
Micrometer Screw Gauge
How to Use a Micrometer?
Turn the thimble until the object is gripped gently between the anvil and
spindle.

Turn the ratchet knob until a "click" sound is heard. This is to prevent
exerting too much pressure on the object measured.

Take the reading.

How to Read the Reading?

Reading = Reading of main scale + Reading of thimble scale.

Reading of main scale = 0 - 25 mm

Reading of thimble scale = 0 - 0.49mm

Precaution Steps:
1. The spindle and anvil
are cleaned with a
tissue or cloth, so that
any dirt present will not
be measured.
2. The thimble must be
Example: tightened until the first
Reading of main scale = 5.5mm click is heard.
Reading of thimble scale = 0.28mm 3. The zero error is
recorded.
Actual Reading = 5.5mm + 0.28mm =
5.78mm
 SPM ‘05

Example:
Reading of main scale = 12.0mm
Reading of thimble scale = 0.45mm

Actual Reading = 12.0mm + 0.45mm = 12.45mm

The accuracy of the micrometer screw gauge is also affected by zero
errors. Before using it, determine its zero errors, if any.
 Measurements Instruments

Sensitivy = how small a change in reading that can

be measured by an instrument

1. The sensitivity of an instrument is its ability

to detect small changes in the quantity that
is being measured.

2. Thus, a sensitive instrument can quickly

detect a small change in measurement.

3. Measuring instruments that have smaller

scale parts are more sensitive.

4. Sensitive instruments need not necessarily

be accurate.
 Measurement of Time Interval
· Time interval is measured by using stopwatch.

· There are 2 types of stopwatches depending of the accuracy needed:

Accuracy Needed Type of Stopwatch Used
0.1 s ~ 0.2 s Analogue (mechanically-operated)
0.01 s Digital (electronically-operated)

· When small time interval is to be measured and the digital stopwatch is

not available (say, when the period of oscillation of a pendulum is to be
measured), higher accuracy or lower margin of error can be achieved by
measuring the time for, say, 20 oscillations 2 or 3 times (instead of
measuring the time for just 1 complete oscillation). Then take the
average time for 20 oscillations and divide it by 20 to give the mean
period for 1 complete oscillation.
 Measurement of Temperature
· There are a number of instruments to measure temperature.
But the most commonly used in laboratory is the mercury thermometer.

· There are 2 types of mercury thermometers used in laboratory:

Accuracy Needed Temperature Range of Thermometer
1` C -10` C ~ 110` C
2` C 0` C ~ 360` C

· To measure body temperature, there is another mercury thermometer with the range of 35` C –
42` C. A temperature above 37` C means having fever.

· Both mercury and alcohol expand uniformly with temperature changes. In fact, alcohol is more
sensitive to heat changes than mercury. However, alcohol is colourless whereas mercury is not which
is why mercury is used in thermometer.

· Other functional features of thermometer are:

o The thin-walled bulb which allows for quick heat transfer between heat source and the mercury
for its expansion;
o The small-diameter of the capillary tube which amplifies small expansion of mercury in the
bulb into large linear expansion along the fine calibrated capillary tube allowing changes in
temperature to be measured.
 Measurement of Temperature
·Precaution
1) When reading he scale, position of eye must at
level of centre of meniscus of mercury in capillary
tube

2) Immerse the thermometer bulb fully in liquid

without touching base of beaker

3) Stir liquid to ensure uniform temperature before

measuring the temperature of liquid
 Measurement of Electric Current & Voltage
· Electric current (I) flowing through a point in an electric circuit is measured by the instrument ammeter or
milliammeter. Both have scales calibrated in SI unit for electric current, I - ampere (A).

· The choice between ammeter and milliammeter depends on the size of the current to be measured and the
accuracy needed:
Current Size Accuracy Instrument
Small (less than 1 A) 0.1 mA ~ 0.2 mA Milliammeter
1 A ~ a few A 0.1 A ~ 0.2 A Ammeter

· Ammeter or milliammeter is connected in series at a point in the circuit

Voltage, V, (or potential difference) between any two points in an electric circuit is measured by a voltmeter which
is connected in parallel across the two points in the circuit.

· Voltmeter has accuracy of 0.1 V ~ 0.2 V.

Both the ammeter and voltmeter may have anti-parallax mirror to minimize parallax error.

Resistance (R) of a resistor in an electric circuit is found by using Ohm’s law where R = V/I. Hence, to find the
resistance of a resistor in an electric circuit, we measure both the current flowing through the resistor and the
potential difference or voltage across the resistor; we then use Ohm’s Law (R = V/I) to calculate the size of the
resistance in ohms.
 Triple Beam Balance
Used to measure the mass of object

Before use:
(1) All the riders should moved to their “0” position
(2) Adjustment screw need to be adjusted until the pointer is
at its equilibrium position
A Lever Balance Triple Beam Balance
 Measurement Errors

Error

Error is the difference between the

actual value of a quantity and the
value obtained in measurement.

There are 2 main types of error:

1. Systematic Error
2. Random Error
 Measurement Errors

Systematic Error

Occurs in one direction only.

too too Always positive

Always negative or
low high
 Measurement Errors

Systematic Error

May arise from several causes:

Incorrect calibration of instruments.

Consistently improper use of equipment.

Zero error - pointer of instruments does not return to zero when not in use,
such as ruler worn out at one end.

Repeated error in reaction time.

Wrong assumption.
 Measurement Errors

Zero Error

1. A zero error arises when the

measuring instrument does not
start from exactly zero.

2. Zero errors are consistently present in

every reading of a measurement.

3. The zero error can be positive or

negative.
 NEGATIVE ZERO POSITIVE ZERO
NO ZERO ERROR ERROR ERROR
The pointer of the The pointer of the The pointer of the
ammeter place on ammeter does not ammeter does not
zero when no place on zero but a place on zero but a
current flow negative value negative value
through it. when no current when no current
flow through it. flow through it.
Zero error instrument
still can be used.
 Systematic error can be reduced by :

• Conducting the experiment with

care.
• Repeating the experiment by using
different instruments.
 Measurement Errors
Random Error

Size of error not constant & unpredictable.

The reading is sometimes positive & sometimes negative

from actual value.

It fluctuates from one measurement to the next.

Random errors are caused by factors that are beyond the

control of the observers.
 Measurement Errors

May arise from various causes:

- Parallax error - due to incorrect positioning of the eye when taking
measurement
- Wrong technique of measurement.
- Changes in the surroundings; i.e. temperature, air circulation,
lighting, magnetic field, etc.
- Lack of sensitivity of the instrument: the instrument fail to respond to
the small change
- Personal errors such as human limitations of sight and touch.

Can be reduced by:

- Repeated measurements - taking mean value
- Using mirror beneath pointer of instrument
Scientific Investigation
 Scientific Investigation
Start The processes involved

Observation Making use of all human senses

Inference Initial explanation or conclusion

Hypothesis Making smart guesses

Experiment Testing in controlled situation

Conclusion Documentation of results in report

End
 Scientific Experiment
Steps involved in carrying out Experiment

Suggest suitable questions

Aim

Manipulated, responding, & fixed Variables

List apparatus/materials, arrangement Apparatus

Carry out experiment in proper order Procedures

Documenting data obtained Tabulation

Analyze data through graphs, etc. Analysis

Scientific Investigation
 Analysing Graphs

a) Types of graph

i) Linear graph

ii) Non-linear graph

b) Type of slopes

i) Positive slope

ii) Negative slope

c) Extrapolation of graphs

i) Objective

(1) To determine of x-intercept or y-intercept

(2) To predict change when other quantities are varied

(3) To find the value of a quantity that happens to be under difficult or

dangerous conditions.

(4) To estimate a value of a quantity falling beyond the range of values

measured
 Very
Important!
 Definition List
Physical quantities
QUANTITIES that are measurable
Base quantities
PHYSICAL QUANTITIES that cannot be defined in terms of other physical quantities but has its own definition
Derived quantities
PHYSICAL QUANTITIES that are derived from base quantities by multiplication or division or both
Scientific notation/ standard form
POWERS of the base number 10 to show a very large or small number
Prefixes
GROUP OF LETTERS placed at the beginning of a word to modify its meaning, which act as multipliers
Scalar quantity
QUANTITY which has only magnitude or size (time, temperature, mass, volume, distance, density, power)
Vector quantity
QUANTITY which has both magnitude or size and direction (force, velocity, displacement, acceleration, momentum)
Error
DIFFERENCE between actual value of a quantity and the value obtained in measurement
Systematic errors
CUMULATIVE ERRORS that can be corrected, if the errors are known. (zero error, incorrect calibration of measuring instrument)
Random errors
ERRORS that arise from unknown and unpredictable variations in condition, and will produce a different error every time. Random errors are caused by factors that are
beyond the control of observers.(human limitations, lack of sensitivity, natural errors, wrong technique)
Zero error
ERROR that arises when the measuring instrument does not start from exactly zero
Parallax error
ERROR in reading an instrument because the observer’s eyes and the pointer are
not in a line perpendicular to the plane of scale
Measurement
PROCESS of determining value of a quantity using a scientific instrument with a standard scale
Consistency
ABILITY to register the same reading when a measurement is repeated (improve – eliminates parallax error, greater care, not detective instrument)
Accuracy
DEGREE to which a measurement represents the actual value
(improve – repeat readings, avoid parallax/zero error, high accuracy instrument)
Sensitivity
ABILITY to detect quickly a small change in the value of a measurement (thermometer – thin wall bulb, narrow capillary)
Inferences
EARLY CONCLUSION that you draw from an observation or event using information that you already have on it
Hypothesis
GENERAL STATEMENT that is assumed to be true regarding the relationship between the manipulated variable and responding variable
Practice Questions