Geostrat SCSL4

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CONTENTS
DAY 1: BASIC THEORY
DAY 2: ROCK STRENGTH

EXCAVATION STABILITY
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STRATA CONTROL CERTIFICATE
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BASIC THEORY
Terms, definitions and basic quantities:
ss: Is the amount of matter in a body measured in Kilograms

Formula: Volume x Density
Gravity: The force that exists between the earth and a body, accelerating
that body towards the center of the earth.
Acceleration rate = 9.81m/s²
Density: Mass per unit volume.

Units = Kg/m³
mass
Formula:  
volume XTRACT
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Force: An action that tries to change the state of movement, the rate of
movement or the direction of movement of a body.
Formula: Force  mass  acceleration Units = Newton (N)
ss: The force exerted per unit area.

Units = Pascal (Pa)
force
Formula: 
area
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A rock with dimensions 1.2m long x 0.9 m wide x 0.75m high and density 2750
Kg/m3 rests on. a) A Mine pole with contact surface 20 cm diameter and b) A
Profile prop with contact surface area 85 mm diameter.
Determine the stress exerted by each of the support units.
force = x
mass acc
= 1.2m x 0.9m x 0.75m x 2750kg / m3 x 9.81m / s2
= 21.852 kN
Force
Stress ( s ) =
Area
21.852 KN
=
0.0314 and 0.00567
= 695.6 kPa and 3.85MPa XTRACT
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NORMAL STRESS CAN EITHER BE :

COMPRESSIVE TENSILE
COMPRESSIVE STRESS TENDS TO SHORTEN A BODY
TENDS TO LENGTHEN ( STRETCH ) A BODY
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Inelastic modeling showing compression and tensile
GEOSTRAT stress zones around a underground excavation
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Compressive Compressive
Tensile
Compressive Compressive
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An Elephant with mass 6 Tons steps on your foot with his 20cm diameter
circular foot. His mass is equally distributed between all of his legs.
A Woman with mass 59 Kg wearing high heels steps on your foot with her full
mass. The size of her stiletto heel is 6mm x 6mm.
Determine the stress exerted during each painful experience on your foot.
Force Force
Stress ( )  Stress ( ) 
Area Area
2
(6000kg  4) x 9.81m / s 2 59 kg x 9 . 81m / s
  2
0 .1m x 
2 0 . 00003 m
 16.078 Mpa
 468.4 KPa
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A press is used to test the compression characteristics of a 800mm x 800mm

matpack. If the load (force) applied by the press is 250kN calculate the stress on
the pack.
Force
Area  Length x Width Stress ( ) 
Area
 0.8m x 0.8m 250 Kn

 0.64m 2
0 .64m 2
 390.63 KPa
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A block of rock measuring 1m x 1m and 1m high rests on a concrete floor. If

the density of this rock is 2700kg/m³ Calculate the stress that is exerted on the
concrete floor.
Mass  Volume x Density
Volume  Length x Width x Height
 1m x 1m x 1m  1m 3 x 2700kg / m 3
 1m 3  2700kg
Force  Mass x Accelleration Force
Stress ( ) 
Area
 2700kg x 9.81m / s 2
26487 N

 26487 N 1m 2
 26.487kN  26487 N / m 2
 26.487kPa
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Calculate the stress at a depth of 975m in a Witwatersrand gold mine.

Density 2700kg/m³
Volume  Length  Width  Height Mass  Volume  Density
 1m  1m  975m  975m 3  2700kg / m 3
 975m3  2632500kg
Force
Force  Mass  Acceleration Stress ( ) 
Area
 2632500Kg  9.81m / s 2 
25824825N
 25824825N 1m 2
 25824825Pa
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A cylindrical rock specimen having a diameter of 42mm was tested to destruction

in a press. The load at which the specimen failed was 346.0kN. Calculate the
stress acting on the specimen at the point of failure.
Force
Stress ( ) 
Area
Area  r 2
346000 N
   0.021
2

0.00138544.200m 2
 0.001385442m 2
 249739792,00 Pa
 249,74 MPa.
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Strain: A body, which is deformed as a result of stress acting on the body, will
contain strain. Strain is defined as the change in length (volume) over
the original length or volume
 L0    (Compressive strain is positive)
L 0
 Δl

Lo LO
ℓ
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A cylindrical rock specimen which is 85.5mm long is placed in a press and

loaded until it has deformed by 0.11972mm. Calculate the strain.
New Length  Original Length  Deformatio n

 0.085m  0.00011972 m
 0.08488028m

Strain ( ) 
L
0.08488028m

0.085m
 0.998591529 XTRACT
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Strain: A body, which is deformed as a result of stress acting on the body, will
contain strain. Strain is defined as the change in length (volume) over
the original length or volume
(Tensile strain is negative)
ℓ= L + Δ ℓ
L Δl
ℓ
Ɛ= or
ℓ
L
L L
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If a length of steel wire which is originally 0.94m long is stretched by 0.25m,

calculate the strain
l  l
Strain ( ) 
l
0.94  0.25m

0.94m
 1.265
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DEFORMATION
A change in size and shape of a body as a result of a force acting on a
body
TWO TYPE OF DEFORMATIONS
 ELASTIC DEFROMATION (TEMPORARY)

When a body RETURNS to it’s original shape
 IN-ELASTIC DEFORMATION (PERMANENT)

When a body DOES NOT return to it’s original shape
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DISPLACEMENT
Change in the position of a body
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Elasticity: The property of a material whereby it returns to its original form or

condition after an applied force causing deformation is removed.
σ σ σ σ
ε ε ε ε
Linear Non – linear Elasto Pure
elastic elastic Plastic plastic
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CONVERGENCE
Is the amount by which the working height of a stope is reduced as a result of
elastic deformation or bending of the hangingwall beam.
ELASTIC
DEFORMATION
HANINGWALL
ORIGINAL STOPING WIDTH
FOOTWALL
COVERGENCE
CurrentSto pingWidth
%Convergence  100
OriginalSt opingWidth XTRACT
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CLOSURE.
Is the amount by which the stoping width is reduced by the combined effect of
convergence (elastic deformation) and additional (in-elastic)
movements, such as (parting plane separation). As the downward
movement is so large the fractured beams starts breaking into blocks which is
known as (inelastic deformation).
ELASTIC DEFORMATION
INELASTIC DEFORMATION ,
LAYER SEPARATION BROKEN UP LAYER OF ROCK.
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Uniaxial tension: The state of a body under the influence of a tensile stress
along one axis. One Axis
One Axis One/Uniaxial
Uniaxial compression: The state of a body under the influence of a

compressive stress along one axis.
One Axis
One Axis XTRACT

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Stress
Virgin stress: The natural stress existing before any mining has taken place, VIRGIN
STRESS.
Units = Pascal (Pa) q  gh
Formula:The ratio of horizontal to vertical stress
K – Ratio: .

Formula: K  h K Factor in Gold Mines is 0.5
 v
K Factor in Platinum Mines is 2,0
An average tectonic stress component of about 10 MPa is present in the rock, acting
together with a small linear increase with depth, resulting in:
σh (ave) ≈ 10 + (0.01 x h)

In pure elastic conditions, the k ratio can also be estimated by: K
(1  )
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Determine the maximum virgin stress component in:

1. A deep Gold mine situated at a depth of 3200 m below surface. The K-
Ratio is 0.5 and the rock density 2750 Kg/m3
2. A shallow Platinum mine situated at a depth of 850 m below surface with a K
ratio of 3.2 and a rock density of 3235 Kg/m3
Mine A  gh x (K - Ratio)
 2750kg / m 3  9.81m / s 2  3200m x 0.5

 86.328MPa x 0.5
 43.164 Mpa
Mine B  gh  ( K  ratio )
 3235 kg / m 3  9.81m / s 2  850m  3.2
 86.320 MPa
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Calculate the K – Ratio of a Gold mine situated a 2750 m below surface in
Quartzite if the horizontal stress component is based on the equation - σh

(ave)
= 10 + (0.01 x h) 
K h
 v  gh 
v
 2750 kg / m 3  9.81m / s 2  2750m
10  (0.01 x 2750) MPa

 74.188 MPa 74.188 MPa
σh(Ave) =10 +(0.01 x h) MPa
37.5 MPa

10+(0.01 x 2750) MPa 74.18  Pa
=
= 37.5 MPa
 0. 5 XTRACT
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Calculate both the vertical and horizontal stresses at a point underground

at a depth of 1890m if the K factor is 0.3, the density is 2700kg/m³
  gh
v
 2700Kg / m  9.81m / s  1890m

3 2
 50.060MPa
h
K 
v
h v x K
 50060430 Pa x 0.3
 50.060430 MPa x 0.3
 h  15.01MPa XTRACT
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Calculate the vertical and horizontal stress at a point underground at a

depth of 970m if K = 0.7. Density 2700kg/m³
  gh
v
 2700Kg / m  9.81m / s  970m

3 2
 25.692MPa

K h
 v
 25692390Pa  0.7
  17.984MPa
h
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If at any point underground , the vertical stress is 76.5MPa and the rock
density is 3000kg/m³. Calculate the depth.
 v  gh
76500000Pa  3000Kg / m 3  9.81m / s 2  h

76500000Pa
h
3000  9.81
 2599.388m
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INDUCED STRESS
The stress caused by mining
THE MAGNITUDE OF INDUCED STRESS DEPENDS ON THE SIZE,

SHAPE, AND DEPTH OF THE EXCAVATION.
SIZE
SHAPE
DEPTH
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INDUCED STRESS
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FIELD STRESS
FIELD STRESS = IS A COMBINATION OF THE PRIMITIVE STRESS

+ INDUCED STRESS. (CLOSE TO THE EXCAVATION i.e. IN THE
ROCKMASS NEXT TO THE EXCAVATION. )
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Virgin Stress Induced Stress Virgin Stress
Field Stress
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TECTONIC STRESS
Tectonic stresses are generated as a result of geologically driven

factors, such as movement or straining of the earth’s crust by regional
uplift, down warping, faulting, folding or surface irregularities.
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RESIDUAL STRESS
Residual stresses are those remaining in the rock mass after the cause of
the stresses has been removed.
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ROCK STRENGTH TESTING IN THE LABORATORY
The strength of the rock is very dependant on the way in which subjected to
stress and, therefore, various strength values are used, namely:
 Uni-axial compressive strength (UCS)

 Tensile strength
 Shear strength
 Tri-axial compressive strength
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ROCK STRENGTH TESTING IN THE LABORATORY

 The strength of a standard length of core with length 2 - 3 times its diameter is
tested in a hydraulic press fitted with a pressure gauge and subjected to axial
loading.
 The rate at which load is applied varies between 0,5 and 1.0MPa/s-1. Strain
gauges are attached to measure lateral stains.
 A minimum of 5 tests are required to establish a reasonable average of the

specific rock type strength.
 The test specimens should be flat to within 0.02 mm and perpendicular to it’s axis
to within 0.05 mm in every 50 mm, with it’s diameter not less than 10 x the
diameter of the largest grain size.
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Schematic representation of a UCS and Tri-axial compressive test
Hydraulic Ram
Pressure cell
Strain gauges
Latex Jacket
Hydraulic oil
Uni-axial Compressive Test Tri-axial Compressive Test

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The maximum stress that a rock specimen can withstand without failing is the
highest point on a stress/strain graph. The most typical value used is the UCS
(Uni-axial Compressive Strength) of a cylindrical rock sample.
Ductile behavior
Yield
Stress
Point of brittle failure - Peak strength

Strain hardening
Strain softening
σ
Young’s Modulus
Residual strength
ε
Typical Rock Stress / Strain deformation curve XTRACT
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Linearly-elastic relations
Hoek’s Law
In the case of a linearly-elastic substance, the stress / strain relationship is
represented by a straight line, expressing the proportionality between Stress
and Strain as: 
E

E is referred to as the Young’s Modulus or modulus of elasticity of a substance
Poisson’s ratio
The relationship between lateral strain to the axial strain produced in a linearly
elastic body 
 lateral
 axial
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If the stress applied to a rock sample is 130.52MPa, calculate the Young’s

Modulus if the strain on the sample is 0.001400
E = Young’s Modulus
 = Stress on the rock Sample
Ɛ = Strain experienced by the sample

E

130.52Mpa

0.00140
 93228.57 MPa
 93.228GPa
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Influence of test machine stiffness

The stiffness of the testing machine is important since the Soft machine stores some of the
energy generated during the test in the frame of the machine. This energy is then violently
released just after peak strength of the specimen is reached because the energy released
during unloading of the machine is greater than that, the specimen can absorb.
The stiff machine, releases all available energy as load is applied, and no excess energy exists
in excess of the specimen strength capabilities.
The behaviour up to and including peak strength of the specimen is not influenced by the
stiffness of the machine.
In the underground situation, the rock mass acts like a SOFT testing machine, releasing massive
amounts of energy at the point of failure. XTRACT
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THE FOLLOWING ARE TYPICAL UNI-AXIAL COMPRESSIVE STRENGTHS

OF SOME COMMON ROCKS:
MATERIAL UCS (MPA)

SHALE 20 – 50
DOLOMITE 80 – 245
QUARTZITE 160 – 220
LAVA 120 - 350
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Tri-axial compression: The state of a body under the influence of compressive

stress being applied in three directions.
The rock surrounding excavations are not in a state of uni-axial compression. Tri-axial
compressive tests are done to simulate the behaviour of the rock under confinement away from
the underground openings.
In tri-axial tests, σ1 > σ2 = σ3. The test sample is placed in a sealed pressure cell surrounded
by a latex jacket filled with hydraulic oil. The confining stress is applied by pressurising hydraulic
oil in the cell and measuring strain as in the UCS test.
The confining stress is held constant whist the axial stress is increased until failure occurs at
peak strength. Further deformation is achieved at decreasing stress.
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STRESS COMPONENTS IN THREE DIMENSIONS
σzz
Z
τzx τzy
Y
τyz
X τxz
σyy
τxy τyx
σxx
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Shear strength of discontinuities:
In a shear test, each specimen is subjected to a stress normal (σn) to the

bedding plane, and the shear stress τ, required to cause a displacement is
measured.
The shear stress will increase rapidly until the peak strength is reached.
This corresponds to the sum of the strength of the cementing material bonding
the two halves of the bedding plane together and the frictional resistance of the
matching surfaces.
As the displacement continues, the shear stress will fall to some residual value
that will then remain constant, even for large shear displacements.
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ROCK JOINTS AND ROCK MASS STRENGTH
Discontinuities may contain different infilling materials.
The presence of such materials will influence the strength of discontinuities as

well as it’s shear behaviour, depending on the characteristics of the infilling, such
as the type of infilling and the thickness of the infilling.
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Shear stress: The stress acting parallel to a plane resulting in shear

movement.
Symbol = τ (Tau) Units = Pascal

Shearing will take place on a plane of weakness if: s ≥ Co + τ σn μs
In other words, if the shear stress exceeds the shear strength of a plane of
weakness
Co = σc βo = (1 + Sin θ)
2 (1 – Sin θ)

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Friction angle: The angle at which sliding would initiate on a prepared surface.
τs ≥ Co + σn μs
The average angle of friction for Quartzite θ is between 30 - 40º
σn is the stress acting normal to the plane of weakness

Co (Cohesion: Shear resistance at zero normal stress) is about 40 MPa for
Quartzite but only 0 to 5 MPa for geological discontinuities
μs (Static friction angle of rock) = tan θ
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Shear strength of rough surfaces

A natural discontinuity surface in hard rock is never as smooth as ground
surface of the type used for determining the basic friction angle. The surface
roughness increases the shear strength of the surface.
Patton (1966) demonstrated this influence by means of an experiment on 'saw-
tooth' specimens.
The shear strength of Patton's saw-tooth specimens can be represented by:
τr = σn tan (Ø b + i )
where: Ø b is the basic friction angle of the surface and
i is the roughness angle of the saw-tooth face.
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Barton’s estimate of shear strength

Patton’s formula is valid at low normal stresses where shear displacement is due to sliding
along the inclined surfaces. At higher normal stresses, the strength of the intact material will be
exceeded and the teeth will tend to break off, resulting in a shear strength behavior, which is
more closely related to the intact material strength than to the frictional characteristics of the
surfaces.
While Patton’s approach has the merit of being very simple, it does not reflect the reality that
changes in shear strength with increasing normal stress is gradual rather than abrupt. Barton
studied the behavior of natural rock joints and have proposed that the equation can be re-
written as:
τ = σn tan(Ø b + JRC 10 log tan( JCS /σn ))
Where: JRC is the joint roughness coefficient and

JCS is the joint wall compressive strength.
σ
n is stress normal
Ø b is the friction angle XTRACT
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The joint roughness coefficient JRC is a number that can be estimated by

comparing the appearance of a discontinuity surface with standard profiles
published by Barton
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Classification of discontinuity spacing

Extremely close spacing < 20 mm
Very close spacing 20 – 60 mm
Close spacing 60 – 200 mm
Moderate spacing 200 – 600 mm
Wide spacing 600 – 2000 mm
Very wide spacing 2000 – 6000 mm
Extremely wide spacing > 6000 mm
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The core recovered from a borehole, with length 16m is retrieved in the
following core sizes:
6 x 27 mm Core re cov ered 100mm or longer
RQD   100
8 x 3.5 cm Total length of drill run
9 x 122 mm 
15018mm
 100
16000mm
12 x 7.5 mm
 93.863%
18 x 23 cm
7 x 350 mm
42 x 6.5 mm
19 x 15 cm
14 x 320 mm
Determine the RQD of this rock.

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What does the RQD mean to you?
RQD (%) ROCK QUALITY
0 – 25 Very poor
25 – 50 Poor
50 – 75 Fair
75 – 90 Good
90 – 100 Excellent
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The Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion has some limitations, in that it:
 Is based on laboratory sample tests only and not on true rock behaviour
 It over estimates the strength of in situ rock, due to the presence of

weaknesses
 The curvature of the confinement graph often displays a visible downward

curvature.
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To compensate for this shortcomings, the Hoek & Brown empirical failure
criterion was developed:
 
1 3
 s c2
 m c  3 
m is the curvature of the failure characteristic - typically m = 0.05 to 5

s governs the rock mass condition - typically s = 0.01 to 0.6 = granulated and
1 is intact rock masses.
σc is the Uniaxial compressive strength of the rock sample
σ3 is the confining stress
Appropriate values for m and s can be established from a rock mass
classification survey. XTRACT
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A rock mass with S value: 0.5 and M value: 3.5 and UCS: 165 MPa is subjected
to confining stresses ranging from 0 MPa to 40 MPa.
Calculate the rock strength for these values, using Hoek & Brown’s empirical
 
failure criterion, starting at zero confinement with 8 MPa increments.
 1   3  S  c 2  M  c 3
For σ3 = 0 σ3 = 16 = 167.17 MPa
0+ √(0.5 x 165 MPa2+ 3.5 x 165 MPa x 0) MPa σ3 = 24 = 189.75 MPa
116.67 MPa σ3 = 32 = 211.14 MPa
For σ3 = 8 σ3 = 40 = 231.61 MPa
8+ √(0.5 x 165MPa 2+ 3.5 x 165 MPa x 8 )
σ3 = 8 = 143.03 MPa
Plot on a graph
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
ROCK JOINTS AND ROCK MASS STRENGTH
 Joints are geological discontinuities along which, no visible displacement occurred.

 They commonly have some infilling material, which defines their cohesion and friction properties.
 Joints usually occur in sets, a set being defined as a group of joints with common orientation.
 Two, three or four joint sets usually occur in a rock mass with one of the sets predominant in intensity
in a specific area.
 Sets of joints developed in response to major tectonic events and thus their occurrence can be
expected over large areas.
 In the Bushveld Complex, three sets of joints occur which are associated with tectonics, and further
complex jointing is associated with ”Potholes” on the reef horizon.
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
 It is important to determine the orientation and average joint spacing of joint sets in different areas. In low
stress, the most common hazard is the formation of unstable key blocks.
 If these blocks do not fall out spontaneously as the stope face exposes them, their presence in the
hanging wall is extremely dangerous.
 They are sensitive to minor deformation of the rock mass and shock loading due to mining activities, and
unless adequately supported can cause large fall outs without warning.
The classification of rock masses based on the occurrence and quality of jointing
(such as the Q and RMR systems as well as the Laubcher scheme) have met with little success.
The main deficiencies of these systems seems to be that:
They do not account adequately for the orientation of joints with respect to the stope faces nor the mining-
induced stress changes experienced by the rock mass.
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
ROCK MASS CLASSIFICATION

Why Rock mass classifications and what is it’s restrictions?
• As a checklist to ensure that all relevant information has been considered.
• Build up a picture of the composition and characteristics of a rock mass to provide initial
estimates of support requirements, and
• To provide estimates of the strength and deformation properties of the rock mass.
Rock mass classifications cannot replace some of the more elaborate design procedures.
However, the use of these design procedures requires access to relatively detailed information
on in situ stresses, rock mass properties and planned excavation sequence, none of which may
be available at an early stage in the project. As this information becomes available, the use of
the rock mass classification schemes should be updated and used in conjunction with site-
specific analyses.
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
Bieniawski’s Rock Mass Rating (RMR) system

The following six parameters are used to classify a rock mass using the RMR system:
1) Uniaxial compressive strength of rock material.
2) Rock Quality Designation (RQD).
3) Spacing of discontinuities.
4) Condition of discontinuities.
5) Groundwater conditions.
6) Orientation of discontinuities.
In applying this classification system, the rock mass is divided into a number of structural
regions and each region are classified separately. WHY – Because the rock is not Isotropic
or Homogeneous
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
The RMR value is determined as follows:

Item Value Rating (From table)
Point load index 8 MPa 12

RQD 70% 13
Spacing of discontinuities 300 mm 10
on of discontinuities Note 1 22
Groundwater Wet 7
Adjustment for joint orientation Note 2 -5
Total 59
See Table in file P20 – It is just a question of reading ratings off table for different
values
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
A cross cut is driven in slightly weathered Quartzite towards the reef.

The strata dips At 26 degrees. The quartzite has a UCS of 180 MPa.
The conditions in the cross cut are wet. The jointing shows a rough
surface with 3mm hard cohesive infilling. The Joints have an average
length of 3.5m. Below are the measurements taken of the length of
pieces of core separated by joints. The total length of core recovered
is 2m.
18cm; 12cm; 6cm; 4cm; 4cm; 12cm; 14cm; 12cm; 18cm; 20cm; 12cm;
10cm; 12cm; 6cm; 18cm;22cm.
a)Calculate the RQD
b)Calculate the average joint spacing
c)Calculate the RMR and determine the rock mass class with the aid
of the Rock Mass Rating System sheet XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
Laubscher described a Modified Rock Mass Rating system. This system takes the basic RMR
value, as defined by Bieniawski, and adjusts it to account for in situ and induced stresses, stress
changes and the effects of blasting and weathering.
Rock Tunneling Quality Index, Q System (Barton)
RQD J r J w
Q  
Jn J a SRF
Where:
RQD is the Rock Quality Designation
Jn is the joint set number
Jr is the joint roughness number
Ja is the joint alteration number
Jw is the joint water reduction factor
SRF
XTRACT
is the stress reduction factor
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
The rock tunnelling quality Q can now be considered to be a function of only

three parameters, which are crude measures of:
1. Block size (RQD/J n)

2. Inter-block shear strength (J r / J a)
3. Active stress (J w /SRF)
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
The CSIR Classification of jointed rock masses
No single simple index is adequate as an indicator of the complex behaviour of

the rock mass surrounding an underground excavation.
Some combination of factors such as RQD and the influence of clay filling and
weathering appear to be necessary. One such classification system has been
proposed by Bieniawski of the South African (CSIR).
This classification is one of the two classifications that would be recommend

for general use in the preliminary design of underground excavations.
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
The five basic classification parameters then become:
1. Strength of Intact Rock Material (UCS or Point load)
2. Rock Quality Designation
3. Spacing Of Joints
4. Condition Of Joints
5. Ground Water Conditions

XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
A cylindrical rock sample is subjected to Uni-axial loading. The sample has a

diameter of 50 mm and an axial length of 125 mm. Similar tests have show that
the Young’s Modulus for intact rock is 75 GPa and axial strain is 4 times lateral
strain. Poisons = 0.25
At one point during the test, the strain gauges indicate a strain of 3 x 10-3
1. Calculate the distance the sample has to be compressed to reflect a strain

of this magnitude.
2. What is the horizontal strain at this point in the test?
3. What is the new sample height and width at this point of the test?
4. Calculate the average axial stress in the sample at this point.
5. Calculate the lateral stress developed in the sample XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
 lat
 
l  
l  ax
l  0.003  125mm
  lat
 0.375mm 0.25 
0.003
σ
E 
ε  lat  0.00075
σ  75Gpa  0.003 New height  125mm  0.375mm
 225Mpa  124.625mm
σ
E  New width  50mm  (50 x0.00075)
ε
σ  75Gpa  0.00075 50mm  0,0375mm
 56.25Mpa XTRACT
 50.0375 mm
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
A pillar is defined as any block of un-mined ground surrounded by mining.
The functions of pillars are for roof support or regional control. Pillars are a
“cheap” support system initially but ore is often sterilized, and there are some
mining difficulties in creating them.
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
Some shallow mines are making use of a stiff pillar system. That is, a
system whereby the whole rock mass is supported up to surface. This is
comprised of a continuous row of rectangular pillars with pillar holing at
regular intervals.
PILLARS ARE DESIGNED ACCORDING TO THE:
1. Material strengths - rock strength

2. Pillar loads - depth below surface
3. Tributary areas - area to be supported per pillar.
It is very important that pillar dimensions are adhered to at all times. If a

pillar is over-mined it may fail.
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
400 -
Squat pillar
w:h = 10
300 -
STRESS
(MPa)
200 -
w:h = 5 Yield pillar
100 -
w:h = 2 - 3 Crush pillar

0-
DEFORMATION
STRESS -DEFORMATION BEHAVIOR OF VARIOUS PILLARS

XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
 NON-YIELD PILLARS
 YIELD PILLARS
 CRUSH PILLARS
 BARRIER PILLARS
 WATER PILLARS
 BOUNDARY PILLARS
 STABILIZING PILLARS
 BRACKET PILLARS
 SHAFT PILLARS
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
ROOF SUPPORT OR PANEL PILLARS (Non Yield Pillars)
• For shallow mines to reduce extent of the tensile dome

• The support needs to resist large F.O.G.’s and back breaks.
• Only stiff backfill or pillars can deliver the required support resistance.
• These pillars are designed to carry all the load of the overburden to
surface and are used in mining areas shallower than about 400m
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
YIELD PILLARS
These pillars are used in deeper layouts where extraction ratios in

conventional board and pillar mining become uneconomic. Due to the
practical difficulties experienced with foundation punching and pillar bursting,
these pillars are little used at present.
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
CRUSH PILLARS
Slender pillars can crush rapidly and stably, yet their residual strength can still
supply required resistance to support up to critical weak parting in the
hangingwall. They are easier to design, but larger strata movements are
permitted. Crush pillars has a width to height ratio of between 2 - 3:1 and it is
crucial that the cores of these pillars are pre-fractured when the pillar is cut
from the host rock otherwise violent failure of the pillars may occur.
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
BARRIER PILLARS
These pillars are often used for “compartmentalisation” in shallow mines. They
are the final line of defence against regional collapse. They are used to resist
surface subsidence and strata movements in all non-deep mines, especially
those using crush or yield pillars. Rule of thumb for the maximum span between
barrier pillars is:
Span < (¼ - ½). Depth
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
WATER & BOUNDARY PILLARS
The statutory 18m minimum for boundary pillars is probably too low for water
pillars. At depth, severe fracturing occurs. However, no known cases have
been reported of heavy water inrushes even with 18m barrier pillar. This is
mostly attributed to the clamping effect caused by the overburden on such
pillars.
STABILIZING PILLARS
Stabilizing pillars work on the principle that if a calculated percentage of the

reef is left on dip or strike in a systematic layout of pillars, the overall level of
stress and E.R.R. at the face can be substantially reduced. XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
BRACKET PILLARS
Bracket pillars are strips of un-mined ground left against hazardous geological
structures to act as partial barriers against seismic activity.
Whether or not bracket pillars are used, the basic principles of negotiating
hazardous geological structures (mining obliquely at > 35˚ to, or preferably
away from, the feature need to be adhered to if at all possible.
Especially in highly geologically-disturbed regions, the identification of these

structures to be protected seems best left to local experience supplemented
with well-analysed quantitative seismic information.
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
BORD AND PILLAR
Local roof and floor stability within a panel for duration of production.
Standard design format:
 Restrict surface movement.

 Protect critical service corridors from the effects of high load and
abutment stress.
 Provide temporary roof support in thick seam primary workings.
 Act as ventilation partitions.
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
ROOM AND PILLAR MINING (BORD or ROOM & PILLAR)

APPLICATIONS:
Orebodies with horizontal or flat dip, inclination not exceeding 15°.

Competent country rock and ore.
Pillars
Room / Board
Pillar holings
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
Area of reef  Length  width
Area of pillar  Length  width
Ar  Ap PS
%e  100 Factor of safety 
Ar APS
0.5
w
Pillar strenth  K 0.75
h
q
Average pillar stress 
1  e  XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
CALCULATE THE EXTRACTION RATIO AND THE

VOLUME OF THE ROCK EXTRACTED GIVEN A BORD &
PILLAR LAYOUT.
THE BORDS ARE 8m WIDE, PILLARS ARE 6M WIDE

AND 10M LONG WITH A SM. OF 4M
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
CALCULATE THE % EXTRACTION AND THE VOLUME OF ROCK EXTRACTED

FOR A BORD AND PILLAR
GIVEN: PILLARS 5m SQUARE

BORDS 8m
SM. 5m
CALCULATE THE FACTOR OF SAFTY AND COMMENT ON THE STABILITY OF
THE LAYOUT AT 300m
DENSITY = 2700Kg/m³
UCS = 130 MPa
g = 10 m/s²
PS = K x (W0.5 / h0.75)
APS = q / (1- e)
FOS = PS / APS
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
A 2.5m THICK HORIZONTAL ORE BODY IS LOCATED AT A DEPTH

OF 90m, WITH THE OVERLAYING ROCK HAVING A UNIT MASS OF
2600Kg/m³. AN INITIAL MINE LAYOUT IS BASED ON 6m BORDS AND
5m SQUARE PILLARS.
g = 9.81m/s²
PS = 10.44(w0.5 / h 0.75)
APS = q / (1 – e)
 DETERMINE % EXTRACTION
 CALC. THE VIRGIN STATE OF STRESS
 DETERMINE THE FOS. AND STATE IF THE PILLAR WILL FAIL
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
CALCULATE THE FACTOR OF SAFETY AND COMMENT ON THE

STABILITY OF THE LAYOUT AT 100m.
DENSITY = 2700Kg/m³
UCS= 130 MPa
g = 10m/s²
PS = K(w0.5 / h0.75)
APS = q (1 / (1-e))
PILLAR = 5m SQUARE
ROOM = 8m
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
A 1.5m THICK ORE BODY IS LOCATED AT A DEPTH OF 100m WITH

THE ROCK HAVING A UNIT WEIGHT OF 32Kn/m³. THE PROPOSED
LAYOUT IS BASED ON 15m PANELS AND 4m SQUARE STRIKE
PILLARS, THE PILLARS ARE SEPERATED BY 2m WIDE HOLINGS.
SM. = 1.5m
PS = 40(w0.5 / h 0.75)
CALCULATE: PRE-MINING STRESS

APS
FOS. AND COMMENT ON THE LAYOUT.
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
A 2.5m THICK ORE BODY IS LOCATED AT A DEPTH OF 100m WITH THE

ROCK HAVING A UNIT WEIGHT OF 25Kn/m³. THE PROPOSED LAYOUT IS
BASED ON 6m BORDS AND 5m
SQUARE PILLARS WITH THE FULL ORE BODY MINED.
PS = 40(w0.5 / h 0.75)
CALCULATE: FOS. AND COMMENT ON THE LAYOUT.
PILLAR STRENGTH DEPENT ON A NUMBER OF COSIDERATIONS, LIST THREE
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
THE MANAGER PROPOSE TO MINE THE 200m DEEP, FLAT DIP OREBODY
USING A BORD & PILLAR SYSTEM. THE REEF IS 1.5M THICK. THE
PILLARS WILL BE 7m LONG (N to S) AND 5m WIDE (E to W) THE BORDS
ARE 10m (N to S) AND 7m (E to W)
THE ROCK HAS A UCS. =130Mpa. EXPLORATORY TUNNELS INDICATE

THE ROCKMASS RATING WILL BE 80%
CALCULATE THE FOS.
IF A 3m HIGH ROADWAY WAS TO BE DEVELOPED NEXT TO THE LINE

OF PILLARS, HOW WOULD THE STRENGTH OF THESE PILLARS
BE AFFECTED
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g SURFACE
0 0
LITTLE FRACTURING OR CLOSURE
DEPTH < 1000m
500 2 SHALLOW MINING
ERR ( FOR ISOLATED 500m SPAN STOPE ) ( MJ / m² )

(MAINLY SCATTERED MINING
WITH REGIONAL PILLARS
8
1000 10
SIGNIFICANT FRACTURING
DEPTH BELOW SURFACE (m)
AND STOPE CLOSURE

1500 20 DEPTH 1000M – 2250M
MEDIUM DEPTH MINING
MAINLY SCATTERED MINING,
SOME LONGWALLING
2000 30
40 DEPTH > 2250m

2500 HEAVY FRACTURING DEEP MINING
50
AND CLOSURE MAINLY LONGWALLING WITH
60 REGIONAL SUPPORT SYSTEM
3000 70
DEPTH > 3500m
ULTRA DEEP MINING
3500
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
THE PRIMARY CONSIDERATIONS OF SHALLOW DEPTH MINING:
 An extended tensile zone in the hangingwall, which promotes bed

separation and the potential for massive collapses.
 The virtual absence of face fracturing, which in deeper mines create

horizontal clamping forces.
 Relatively high horizontal stress and some times highly variable horizontal
stress.
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
XTRACT
The influence of pillars on the tensile domeTRAINING SERVICES 
GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
Determine height of tensile dome

1
h s

H
8 6
S
Determine the approximate height
H
of the tensile dome in:
A stope with mined out span 140 m h
Situated at a depth of 250 m below surface

1
h s

H
8 6 S
S
hs  48.6366 XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
SHALLOW MINING STRATEGIES
 Regional mining spans should be kept to ¼ to ½ of the mining depth.
 In order to stabilize the hangingwall between regional pillars, support

systems with very high support resistance are required. This is best
achieved by the use of yield (“crush”) pillars, or in very shallow mines,
larger non-yielding pillars.
 Because of the shallow mining depth, elastic convergences are small. Stiff
local support, is required to control the hangingwall.
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
THE PRIMARY CONSIDERATIONS OF INTERMEDIATE DEPTH MINING

 Stress conditions range from low to moderately high.
 Compressive horizontal stresses are induced in the hangingwall and
footwall, which stabilize the strata
 Closure rates vary widely
 Hangingwall instability is caused by geological features and blast- or

stress - induced fracturing
 A wide range of rock types and geological complexities exist.
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
INTERMEDIATE DEPTH MINING STRATEGIES

 Stresses are usually within tolerable levels for the majority of mining
activities. Mining geometry and extraction sequences is planned to
minimise the development of areas of high stress. (ERR).
 Support systems must control conditions prevailing, or anticipated.
 Many intermediate depth mines experience rock bursting, and this is
often associated with geological structures.
 Tunnels in high stress or geologically-disturbed zones require enhanced
support standards.
 Remnant geometries need to be planned so as to minimize problems
associated with their final extraction. XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
PRIMARY CONSIDERATIONS OF DEEP LEVEL MINING
 Stress and energy release rate (ERR) levels are high causing highly fractured rock
conditions surrounding unprotected excavations, only overstoped tunnels and other
protected service excavations escape very high levels of field stress.
 Hangingwall strata are clamped by high horizontal stresses and are virtually self-
supporting under static conditions.
 Deformation of rock surrounding excavations is large.
 Stope closure rates are high and total closure of the back areas is common.
 Seismicity is common and is often associated with geological structures. Many deep
level mines experience a severe rock burst problem.
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
ELASTIC CONVERGENCE CALCULATIONS
2(1   ) q
Vertical convergence Sz  l 2  x2
G
Where v is Poisson's ratio ( Good Ratio = 0.20; 0.30)
q is the vertical stress component
G is the modulus of rigidity (± 25GPa)
l is the half-span - 2l is the full span excavated
x is the point of interest, measured from the halfspan position
l = half span
x
2l
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
Critical half span at which first closure occurs can be determined by:
GSm
l c  2(1   )q
The rate, at which strain energy is released at one face of the panel due to the simultaneous
mining of an area, if total closure has not occurred yet, can be calculated by:
 (1   )lq 2
ERR 
2G
The modulus of rigidity, G can be calculated by:
E
G
2(1   ) XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
A timber pack is installed at a distance 20m from the Eastern face of a longwall
that advanced 150m to the west and 180m to the east from the centre gully.
The stope is situated at a depth of 995m below surface and is mined at a
Stoping width of 1.2m. The rock properties are as follows:
• Density - 2750 Kg/m³
• Poisson’s ratio – 0.3
• Elastic modulus – 72.8Gpa
 Determine the installation height of the timber pack if only elastic
deformation occurs in this stope
The Eastern panel advances another 140m.
 Determine the pack height now. XTRACT

TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
E
2(1   )q 2 G
Sz  l  x2 2(1   )
G
37579658  28Gpa
 165 2  145 2
28Gpa
 0.105679m
Install height  Original sw  Convergance

 1.2m  0.105679m
 1.09432m
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
2(1   )q 2
Sz  l  x2
G
37579658
 235  75
2 2
28Gpa
 0.298907 m
New SW  First Convergance  Second Convergance

 1.09432m  0.298907 m
 0.795413m
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
A stope at a depth of 2000m has a stope width of 1.1m. The rock above the
stope has the following characteristics:
Density – 2700kg/m³
Poisson’s ratio – 0.20
Modulus of rigidity – 30GPa
If the stope span is 200m , calculate the vertical stress 1m, 2m, 5m, 10m
and 25m ahead of the face.
qx
 zz

2 2
x l XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
1m ahead of face L = 100m; X = 101 σ = 377.2 MPa

z

z

z

z

z
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
Determine the critical mining span at which first contact would take place
between the hangingwall and the footwall in the previous stope.
GSm
l =
c
2(1 - n ) q
= 894.1m
Determine the Energy release rate in the above stope when the pack was
originally installed. Comment on the results!
 (1   )lq 2
ERR 
2G
= 4.67MJ XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
a. 1.031m
b. 0.933m
Density = 2700Kg/m³ c. 0.098
Poison’s ratio = 0.20
Modulus of rigidity = 30GPa
When the stope span is 200m matpack is installed 3m back from the face.
a.Calculate the height of the matpack at installation.
b.Calculate the height of the same pack after the stope span has increased
to 206m.
c.Calculate the amount by which the matpack has converged as the span
has increased from 200m to 206m.
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
Density = 2700Kg/m³
Poison’s ratio = 0.20
Modulus of rigidity = 30GPa
If the stope span is 400m, calculate

a.The convergence 2m back from the face. a. 0.0996m
b.The convergence 5m back from the face. b. 0.1569m
c.The convergence 12m back from the face. c. 0.241m
d.The convergence at the stope centre d. 0.706 m
XTRACT
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
GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
XTRACT
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
GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
FACTORS CONSIDERED FOR THE SELECTION OF A MINING METHOD
 Geometry of deposit and physical characteristics of the deposit and wall rock.
 Method adaptable to irregular ore limits, yielding good recovery and minimal dilution.
 Deposit strike length and dip.
 Consistency of the ore body width.
 The dimensions and regularity of deposit.
 The geomechanical properties of the wall rocks and ore.
 Nature of the grade distribution.
 Hydrogeology.
XTRACT
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
LSP: Longwall with strike stability pillars A'
GEOSTRAT
Level 1
Level 2
< 40 m
T r a i nSTABILITY
STRIKE i n g PILLAR
S tr ik e P illa r
UFB = RAW
V
V
AC RAW = UFB
A
Dip
Longwall
Reef
B
AC
SG
AC
AC
B
IAW = LFB
LFB
B B
RAW
A'
Level 2
TW
( SECTION AA' )
RAW
< 40 m
STRIKE STABILITY
S t r i k ePILLAR
IAW = HLG
P illa r
HLG
V
V V V
UFB
AC
OP
Reef
B B
AC
V
B
AC Raise
Longwall
TW TW SI
TW
AC
AC
IAW = LFB SG Strike Gully
B Boxhole
LFB
SG B B V Venthole
AC Air Cooler
TW Travelling Way
TW
UFB Upper Follow-Behind
TW
LFB Lower Follow-Behind
HLG Haulage
STRIKE STABILITY
S t r i PILLAR
k e P illa r C F.Vieira
X/Cut
RAW
Crosscut
Return Airway
IAW Intake Airway
45o line SI Service Incline

OP Transfer Orepass
A
XTRACT
Ventilation flow
Direction of mining
( PLAN) Flat development
Inclined development
TRAINING SERVICES
Backfilled stope
Au reef
GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
ONGWALLING IS USED IN THE FOLLOWING SITUATIONS
 In relatively undisturbed ground
 Where reefs are relatively narrow
 Where the ore body is of a high grade
XTRACT
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
GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
ADVANTAGES OF LONGWALL MINING DISADVANTAGES OF LONGWALL MINING
 Concentrated stoping  Not flexible mining
 Easy mechanization  Little knowledge of geology
 Off-reef excavations are de-stressed  Large mining span
 Fewer remnants  Long scraping distance
 High extraction ratio  Difficult to ventilate
 Only one raise developed  High closure rate
 High levels of seismicity
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
SCATTERED MINING
GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
XTRACT
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
GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
SCATTERED MINING IS USED IN THE FOLLOWING SITUATIONS
 Relatively narrow reefs
 Usually for shallow depth
 Geologically disturbed ground
 Varying grade
XTRACT
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
GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
ADVANTAGES OF SCATTERED MINING DISADVANTAGES OF SCATTERED MINING
 Short mining span  Multiple raise lines to develop
 Knowledge of geology  Remnants are left
 High extraction rate  Initially lower extraction
 Short scraping distance  Development subjected to changing

stresses
 Easy to ventilate
 Flexible mining
XTRACT
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
SEQUENTIAL GRID MINING
GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
QUENTIAL GRID MINING IS USED IN THE FOLLOWING SITUATIONS
Relatively narrow reefs
Usually for shallow depth
Geologically disturbed ground
Varying grade
XTRACT
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
GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
ADVANTAGES OF S/GRID MINING DISADVANTAGES OF S/GRID MINING
 Short mining span  Multiple raise lines to develop
 Knowledge of geology  Remnants are left
 High extraction rate  Initially lower extraction
 Short scraping distance  Development subjected to changing

stresses
 Easy to ventilate
 Flexible mining
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

BORD AND PILLAR
GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
RD AND PILLAR IS USED IN THE FOLLOWING SITUATIONS
Depth relatively shallow
Geologically disturbed ground
Varying grade
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
GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
ADVANTAGES OF B/P MINING DISADVANTAGES OF B/P MINING
 Mechanization  Ore oxidation, groundwater control
 Total extraction  Remnants are left
 Easy to ventilate  Initially lower extraction
 Flexible mining  Economies of scale – lower value ore
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
SUB LEVEL OPEN STOPING
GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
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
GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
B LEVEL OPEN STOPING IS USED IN THE FOLLOWING SITUATIONS
Steep dip
Favorable geotechnical characteristics
Regular orebody geometry
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
GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
ADVANTAGES OF S/L OPEN STOPE DISADVANTAGES OF S/L OPEN STOPE
 Mechanization – drilling carried  Extensive development prior to

out in advance of stoping extraction
 Extraction on retreat  Development subjected to changing

stresses
 High extraction rate
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
SHRINKAGE STOPING
GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
XTRACT
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
GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
RINKAGE STOPING IS USED IN THE FOLLOWING SITUATIONS
Steep dip
XTRACT
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
GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
ADVANTAGES OF SHRINKAGE STOPE DISADVANTAGES OF SHRINKAGE STOPE
 Mechanization – drilling carried  Ore prone to oxidation and

out in advance of stoping hydrolysis
 Only bulk of ore removed after every  Development subjected to changing

blast – provide stability for hangingwalls stresses
and footwalls
XTRACT
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
CUT-AND FILL MINING
GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
T AND FILL IS USED IN THE FOLLOWING SITUATIONS
Steep dip
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
GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
ADVANTAGES OF CUT / FILL MINING DISADVANTAGES OF CUT / FILL MINING

 Can be used in ore bodies with irregular  Orebody is above mining – potential for fall-
contours out if orebody not competent
 Offers more mining selectivity
Total extraction
Working platform
XTRACT
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
SUB LEVEL CAVING
GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
XTRACT
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
GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
B LEVEL CAVE IS USED IN THE FOLLOWING SITUATIONS
Steep dip
Easy separation of waste from ore (magnetic)
XTRACT
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
GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
ADVANTAGES OF S/L CAVE MINING DISADVANTAGES OF S/L CAVE MINING
 Pre-drilling  Extensive pre-development
Total extraction
Working platform
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
BLOCK CAVING
GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
XTRACT
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
GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
LOCK CAVE IS USED IN THE FOLLOWING SITUATIONS
Steep dip
Orebody weak – susceptible to breakage
Subsidence acceptable
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
ADVANTAGES OF BLOCK CAVE DISADVANTAGES OF BLOCK CAVE
 Pre-drilling  Extensive pre-development
Cost effective Time lag – slow build-up to production
Total extraction Hang-ups at draw-points – costly secondary

blasting
Working platform
XTRACT
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
GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
DOWN DIP MINING XTRACT

TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
XTRACT
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
GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
XTRACT
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
GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
INTRODUCTION
The main objective of mining is to safely remove the ore from the
reef horizon in the most economical and effective way. This means
that special controls must be in place to ensure the correct drilling
and blasting operations in order to remove the correct amount of
rock from the face without damaging the remaining rock mass.
XTRACT
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
GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
THE MECHANISM OF ROCK BREAKAGE BY BLASTING
When explosives confined in a blasthole are detonated, a high-speed

compressive radial strain wave is generated which travels outwards
from the hole in the rock. Under the influence of the wave, rock
particles are moved radially outwards resulting in a tensile stress in
the tangential direction. Where this tensile stress is greater than the
tensile strength of the rock, radial stress fractures develop.
XTRACT
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
GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
As the stress wave propagates outwards through the rock, it is followed by high
pressure gas associated with the reacting explosive. The gas expands and
penetrates the fractures caused by the stress wave. The fractures then extend
until the gas pressure drops below the critical level required propagating the
fractures.
This gas pressure is what produces the heave that ejects the broken rock from
the face. Explosive selection and use must, therefore, be characterized by
selection of shock and gas energy combinations that achieve the desired blast
characteristics.
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
TYPICAL FRACTURE PATTERNS AROUND A BLAST HOLE
GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
Hole
Shock zone
Total crushing of the
rock
Transition zone
Extension of
fractures due to
Clamping effect shock energy
due to
High vertical σ
Seismic zone
Further extension of
fractures due to Gas-
expansion

Low horizontal σ
allowing vertical fracturing
XTRACT
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GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
XTRACT
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
GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
BLASTING TECHNIQUES
It is vitally important to ensure the accuracy of marking, spacing, drilling and

charging up of all blast holes in both stoping and development.
The consequences of not maintaining the accuracies mentioned above will

result in the creation of friable hangingwall conditions in the working area
affecting both safety and production.
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
EXPLOSIVE CHARACTERISTICS
Different explosives partition their available energy into shock and gas energies in different ways.
For example, an explosive with a low (VOD) tends to deliver more gas energy and less shock wave
energy. This enables the gasses to penetrate far beyond the intended perimeter, causing blocks of
rock to be loosened.
Conversely, a high VOD explosive, delivers more energy as shock energy and the remaining gasses
are at a lower pressure. The result is less damage caused by gas penetration into fractures, and
more fragmentation of the intended body of rock.
High shock explosive Low shock explosives

- Short fractures - Long fractures
- Softening of ground near - Little softening of blasthole
blasthole walls wall
- Less penetration by gas - Gas penetration of joints and
extending fractures XTRACT
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
GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
High VOD
Low VOD
The effect of energy partitioning on fracture developmentXTRACT

TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
The hole, which contained a high VOD explosive, caused crushing around the blasthole but
shorter fractures.
The hole, which contained the low VOD explosive, has less crushing near the blasthole wall
and long fractures.
It has been found that replacing low VOD Anfex with high VOD Powergel has resulted in a
considerable improvement in hangingwall conditions. However, the skin of rock around the
excavation had still been weakened and the benefit of the high VOD explosive may sometimes
be just to gain time to either allow mining activity to move away or for adequate support to be
installed.
The most critical aspect of explosives use in difficult conditions is not the energy partitioning,
but limitation of total energy near the perimeter. Bulk explosives such as Anfex and pumped
Powergel have high-energy release rates because they fill the blasthole. The situation can be

improved by using cartridge explosives. XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES
GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
BLAST AND INITIATION LAYOUT
The correct drilling pattern depends on the holes diameter, explosives loading and competent
explosives engineers to recommend an initial pattern.
Optimization is achieved by observation of the effects of initial blast layouts and making
subsequent adjustments both to the position of the blastholes and the sequence in which they
are fired. Of particular importance is the loading of ‘perimeter easer’ holes in a tunnel, as it is
these which determine the efficiency of any special measures taken with perimeter holes.
So far as initiation is concerned, careful selection of an initiation system and good training are
important to eliminate the possibility of perimeter holes being fired before inner holes. In
particular, capped fuse/igniter cord system should be avoided for long rounds (>2,4m), as it is
difficult to obtain sufficient assurance of sequential firing under these conditions. Nonel Tunnel-
masters, Magnadets or electric detonators are much better suited, as timing intervals are
independent of hole length.
XTRACT
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
GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
BASIC TYPES OF EXPLOSIVES
Explosives can be divided broadly into low and high explosives. The classic example of a low
explosive being gunpowder. This discussion will however be confined to high explosives as
these are commonly used in hard rock applications.
Three basic types of explosives can be identified all of which are characterized by differing
qualities in terms of shock/gas energy, safety and cost:
Nitro-glycerine based explosives (Dynagel)
These are highly adaptable cartridge explosives, which have wide use in the industry. In
general these explosives have shock energy lower than watergels or emulsions but higher than
ANFO.
These explosives have high water resistance. Characteristic problems are ‘Powder
headaches” and excessive blasting fumes. XTRACT
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
GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
ANFO (Low VOD)
A low cost, high power, relatively safe pourable explosive made from porous ammonium nitrate
and fuel oil. It has no water resistance and produces large amounts of gas energy. Due to
different loading densities, consistent loading of holes is often difficult and overcharging may
occur. ANFO is a suitable explosive for use in a wide range of rock mass conditions.
Water–based ammonium nitrates (watergels and emulsions)
These are essentially ANFO’s made water resistant by adding water and forming either gel or
stable oil/water emulsion. Emulsions tend to have the highest shock energies and velocities of
detonation but produce little gas energy. Powergel, a high VOD explosive, delivers more shock
wave energy and the remaining gasses are at lower pressure.
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
THE FUNCTION OF STEMMING (TAMPING)
Stemming is used in a blast hole as a plug to prevent the blowout of a blasthole. It is often a
clayish material with enough strength to confine the explosives in the hole and to allow the
explosive energy to be transferred into rock mass, thus into breaking the rock
STEMMING
EXPLOSIVES
A TYPICAL BLAST HOLE SHOWING EXPLOSIVES ANDTRAINING

STEMMING
SERVICES
XTRACT

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
THE EFFECT OF SHOCK ENERGY AND GAS PRESSURE ON ROCK FRAGMENTATION
The high pressure gasses, having initiated the initial stress wave in the rock, continue to
expand the blast hole until equilibrium exists between the gasses and the containing rock.
The energy released up to this point, known as the Borehole Equilibrium State, is defined as
SHOCK ENERGY, while the subsequent energy release is defined as HEAVE or GAS
ENERGY.
Following the EQUILIBRIUM STATE, a relatively slow but major fragmentation process
occurs as the high-pressure gases penetrate every available opening, forcing movement
towards the point of least resistance. fractures are lengthened and joints opened until
pressure is released at a free face; if the free face is too distant then the gases are violently
expelled from the collar of the hole.
XTRACT
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
GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
It can thus be concluded that the greater the burden on a hole:
1. The longer will be the back–cracking away from the free face,
2. The further the gases will penetrate any jointing in the rock mass,
3 The greater will be concussion in the excavation, blasting out support
damaging ventilation columns and shaking down relaxed rock from the side and
hangingwall.
SHOCK ENERGY pulverizes the blasthole wall and weakens the

nearby rock mass by introducing fine fractures;
GAS ENERGY is largely responsible for ripping out loosely jointed

blocks, extending fractures into solid rock, and producing concussive
effects in the existing underground space.
XTRACT
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
GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
INITIATIONS SYSTEMS
Initiation is the process of detonating explosives. The most important requirement of an

initiating system in stoping are that holes fire in sequence and that no cut-offs of the system
occur. Three main systems, each with specific advantages and disadvantages exist:
1. Fuse and igniter cord
In this system, the oldest and cheapest, a flame front, started with a flame starter “cheesa”
stick. Flame travels via the igniter cord to each fuse where it in turn initiates the detonation
of the explosives. The greatest disadvantage is the lack of reliable sequential detonation.
XTRACT
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
GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
2. Electric detonators
In this arrangement electric current initiates the detonator. The system is relatively expensive
and requires a slightly higher level of training. Sequential firing is easily achieved.
3. Nonel systems
These techniques use a system called “shock tubing”, where a narrow diameter hollow plastic
tubing is lined with a dusting of high explosives. This explosive dust, when initiated,
propagates a high speed shock pulse through the trunk line to linked detonators. Relatively
good sequential firing can be achieved, in the millisecond range, but the cost is relatively high.
XTRACT
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
GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR STOPING
To achieve the required face advance and control, all aspects of the blast need to be controlled.
Burden, spacing, length of holes and hole diameter will influence the success of the blast.
Successful blasting requires that the breaking capacity of the charge (defined in terms of
effective charge) be matched to the burden and rock control.
Effective charge is the product of the energy concentration and the coupling ratio. The size of
the effective charge can be determined by the strength of the explosive, explosive density, hole
diameter and the charge diameter.
XTRACT
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
GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
BLASTING PROCESSES IN UNDERGROUND MINING
Explosive charges are emplaced in blast holes suitably located relative to a free surface of an
opening, and detonated. Rock surrounding the charges is fragmented and displaced by the
impulsive loading in the medium, generated by the sudden release of the explosive’s potential
energy.
Mine openings are created incrementally, by segments excavated in a near-instantaneous

process. A particular concern with blasting is its effect on the rock in the immediate vicinity of
an excavation. Intense local fracturing, and disruption of the integrity of the interlocked, jointed
assembly, can be produced in the near-field rock by poor blast design. More extensive adverse
effects can be induced by the transmission to the far field of energy input to the rock by
explosive action.
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
GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
XTRACT
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
GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
The Absolute Strength Value (ASV) of an explosive is expressed in terms of the free-energy
output (in joules) per 0.1kg of explosive. The Relative Strength Value of an explosive is the
ratio of its calculated useful work output, relative to that of ANFO, taken as a basis of 100
units
The term ‘brisance’ is used to indicate the potential ‘shattering action’ of an explosive. It is
related directly to the detonation pressure of the explosive, which is itself related to
detonation velocity. High-brisance explosives may be characterised by detonation velocities
greater than about 5 000ms-1. Explosives with detonation velocities less than 2 500ms-1
would be classed as low-brisance compounds.
The application of high-brisance explosives is justified only in the strongest, more massive
rock formations.
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
ROCK CONDITIONING
Perimeter Blasting
Perimeter blasting is the process in which closely controlled blasting practices are applied to
produce a geometrically precise and relatively undisturbed ultimate surface. The objectives
are to restrict the number and extent of new fractures in the rock, to prevent undue
disturbance of the jointed mass and therefore to preserve the inherent strength of the in-situ
rock.
Advantages of Perimeter blasting:
- In permanent openings, lower support costs are achieved.
- In temporary openings, reduced maintenance costs are achieved.
- Development rates improve.
- Reduced overbreak.
- Less rock to load.
- Less rock to transport
- Better ventilation flow.
- Excavation life is increased. XTRACT
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
GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
There are three techniques of perimeter blasting,

• pre-splitting,
• post-splitting and
• smooth blasting.
They are based on the use of decoupled charges, in which the objective is to restrict the
development of a rose of fractures around a hole. This is sought by isolating the explosive
charge from the blast hole surface, using a charge diameter appreciably less than the blast
hole diameter, and using spacers to locate the charge axis along the hole axis. Special
explosives, such as “Smoothex”, are formulated and packaged, to ensure stable detonation of
the explosive at relatively low charge diameter.
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
GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
Smooth blasting
Smooth blasting practice involves the development of the ultimate surface of the excavation by
controlled blasting in the vicinity of a penultimate free face. Holes are initiated with short delay
between adjacent holes, and the burden on holes exceeds the spacing.
It is to be noted that a high in-situ state of stress, or a high local state of stress around an
excavation, promotes more effective smooth blasting. It is concluded that smooth blasting is
the preferred method of perimeter blasting at underground sites, where high states of stress
are common.
In the design of a smoothing blast, however, particular stress environments and excavation
geometries may require that the evolving boundary stress around an excavation be taken into
account to assure success of the blast around the complete excavation periphery.
XTRACT
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
GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
PRE-CONDITIONING
ERR is the rate of release of available energy in the rock. This energy can not be destroyed,
but is converted and absorbed by factors such as: Fracturing of the rock, shearing heat
generation, etc.
Under normal blast conditions, the available energy is too little to trigger seismic activity, unless
restrictions occur which interferes with the smooth advance of the fracture zone, such as hard
patches in the rock.
Pre-conditioning is aimed at releasing this build up energy or by fracturing these hard patches
and allowing controlled shearing and energy release. A “fracture cushion” is created in front of
the face, and if mined soon enough to prevent stress re-generation, the stress release should
stay clear from the face. XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

PRE-CONDITIONING
GEOSTRAT fractured zone stoped out area
T r a i n i n g
Odealized stress profile ahead of face
Significant Detrimental Effective Damage

stress pre- to face
effect on
transfer conditioning min.
stress benefits
extent of preconditioning hole ahead of face
Preconditioning reduces the potential for rock-burst damage.

Preconditioning extends the existing fractures to ahead of the faces.

Preconditioning will move any high concentration of stresses
XTRACT away from
the immediate face area . TRAINING SERVICES
GEOSTRAT PRE-CONDITIONING DRILLING
T r a i n i n g
HANGING WALL
Blast Hole
F
A
Preconditioning Hole 2.6m.
C
E
Blast Hole
FOOT WALL
Drilling
 2.6m Long holes are drilled in conjunction with the normal production round.
 Preconditioning holes are to be spaced a maximum of 3m apart and
perpendicular to the face.
 Preconditioning holes are to be drilled in the middle of the face, ensure these
holes are not drilled into the hanging wall.
Preconditioning hole must not be drilled closer than 50cm
days sockets.
XTRACT
to the previous
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT PRECONDITIONING – CHARGING UP
T r a i n i n g
HANGING WALL
Blast Hole
F EXPLOSIVES PRIMER
A Preconditioning Hole 2.6m.
STEMMING
C EXPLOSIVES
E
EXPLOSIVES PRIMER
Blast Hole
FOOT WALL
0.9m. 1.7m.
Charging up
 Preconditioning holes must be charged up with the same explosives
as the normal production round.
 The holes are to be charged up from bottom for 2m.
 The hole must be primed from the top.
 The remaining 1m of the hole must be tamped.
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT PRECONDITIONING –TIMING
T r a i n i n g
3.0m maximum
Normal Production Holes

Day 1 Preconditioning Holes
Igniter Cord For Normal Production Holes
Igniter Cord For Preconditioning Holes
Timing
 The same fuses must be used for preconditioning holes as for the normal production
holes.
XTRACT
 The precondition holes must be detonated 4 holes prior to the normal production holes.
 All preconditioning hole positions must be noted and recorded.
TRAINING SERVICES

REVERSE TIMING - BLOCK PATTERN WITH
GEOSTRAT PRE- CONDITIONING in FAST Motion
T r a i n i n g
F
R
E
E
F
A
Assume to be three meters Assume to be three meters
C
E
DIRECTION OF BLAST
Blue Line - Extenders with HandiMasters

Yellow Line - HandiMasters
Orange Blocks - HandiMaster Blocks 200m/s delay XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT PRE- CONDITIONING in SLOW Motion
T r a i n i n g
F
R
E
E
F
A
C Assume to be three meters Assume to be three meters
E
DIRECTION OF BLAST
Blue Line - Extenders with HandiMasters
Red Line - HandiMasters
Orange Blocks - HandiMaster Blocks 200m/s delay
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
PRE-CONDITIONING in 3D
F
R
E
E
F
A
C
E
Blue Line - Extenders
Red Line - HandiMasters
Red Holes - Production Holes
Blue Holes - Pre Conditioning Holes
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

F PRE-CONDITIONING in 3D Slow Mode
GEOSTRAT
TR
r a i n i n g
E
E
F
A
C
E
Blue Line - Extenders

Yellow Line - HandiMasters
Red Holes - Production Holes
Blue Holes - Pre Conditioning Holes
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

CONDITIONS WITHOUT PRE-CONDITIONING
GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

CONDITIONS WITH PRE-CONDITIONING
GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
SELECTING & USING THE CORRECT SUPPORT

Before a support system is installed in a mine, the users of that support system
need to have a basic understanding of the behaviour of the rock in their
working area. The following lists the points that the Supervisor must
understand:
1. What is the depth of the working area?
2. What are the stresses at that depth below surface?
3. What is the size and nature of the tensile zone?
4. What are the mechanical properties of the rocks in the working area?
5. What geological weaknesses are present in the working area?
Given the above information and experience in local conditions try to calculate
what the ground conditions would be like.
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
IMPORTANT CRITERIA FOR SELECTING THE CORRECT SUPPORT

 (1   )lq 2
1. Energy Release Rate (E.R.R.) ERR 
2G
Energy release rate is the energy change not accounted for during
mining.
2. Excess Shear Stress (E.S.S.)

The level of effective driving shear stress on the plane of weakness,
F
3. Support resistance SR  expressed in kN/m².
A
1
4. Energy Absorption E a
 mv 2  mgh
2
measured in Joule
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
WHAT IS SUPPORT RESISTANCE?

Support resistance is the concept whereby the force generated by a support
unit or the smallest representative section of a support system is averaged
over the tributary area of the hangingwall to be supported by that unit or a
portion of a system.
Support unit
Area that the

f support unit must
SR = support
A
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
Static conditions
Normal support stope closure - SR required 50kN/m²
SR = ρ t g ρ = Density
t = Thickness of fall
g = Gravitational pull
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
Dynamic conditions
Seismic event - SR required 200kN/m²
Ek  1 mv 2  mgh for hangingwall m = Mass

2
g = gravity
h = H/wall displacement
v = Velocity
Ek  1 mv 2
for sidewall
2
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
You install a new ABC prop, tested 200kN. The support is spaced 2.0m X
2.5m.
Calculate the support resistance and commend if the support is suitable.
Force
SR  Area  Length  width
Area
200 Kn  2 .5 m  2 .0 m

5m 2  5m 2
 40 Kn / m 2
WHAT DOES THIS MEAN?

Support resistance less than the COP, not suitable for XTRACT
this area.
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
A stope panel with width 35m has advanced 40m from the centre line with very little support in
place. 1,2m into the hangingwall is a prominent bedding plane that tends to separate on a shale
infilling. The density of the rock is 2.75t/m3.
Determine the support resistance required to hold the hangingwall beam in position.
Determine how many 45 ton profile prop units would be required to be installed if we incorporate
a safety factor of 1.3 and at what average support spacing.
Area: 35 x 40 = 1400m2 = 45 322 200 N + 13 596 660 N

Mass = 1400m2 x 1.2m x 2750kg/m3 = 58 918 860 N (Safety factor included
= 4 620 000 kg = 58 918 860 N / 441 450 N
Force = ma = 4 620 000 kg x 9.81 = 133,47 – 134 units
= 45 322 200 N = 1400m2 / 134 units

SR = 45 322 200 N = 10.45m2 per unit
1400m2
= 32.373 kN/m2
= 3.23m spacingXTRACT
dip + strike
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
The mine has no 5 year history of falls of ground to base their support resistance requirement on
and decides to base their designs on the compilation to a COP recommendations of 50 kN/m2. A
block of ground, 35m x 35m has to be supported with the mentioned SR as basis. Calculate
the support load bearing capabilities required if the support units are to be spaced at 1.85m dip
and strike spacings. Also calculate the beam thickness supported by this support if the rock has
a density of 3000kg/m3.
Area = 35m x 35m Beam thickness supported
= 1225m2
Force = mass x acceleration
Total SR = 1225 x 50kN/m2
= 61 250 000 N 61.25MN = mass
9.81
Support units = 1225m2 / 3.4225 m2 per unit
= 357.93 – 358 units Mass = volume x density
SR per unit = 61 250 000 N / 358 units 6243629kg = volume

= 171.09 kN /unit 3000

Volume = 2081.2m3 / 1225m2
That is = 17.44 ton units
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES
= 1.699m
GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
The H&S act specifies that 95% of all previous F.O.G. injuries should be
Prevented by your support system. The falls of ground on your mine for the last
five years was, 0.9m; 0.6m; 1.3m; 2.4m; 1.2m; 1.25m; 1.35m; 0.7m and 1.0m.
Calculate the thickness of the hangingwall beam that we required to support.
What is the required support resistance to be implemented.
Calculate the maximum support spacing for 20ton props
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
Beam to be supported = total thickness / amount X 95%

= 10.7 / 9 X 95%
= 1.13m
SR = ρ t g 20ton = 20 x 9.81
= 2750kg/m³ X 1.13m X 9.81m/s² = 196.2kN
= 30.48KPa
F = Mass x acceleration Spacing = 196.2 / 30.5

= 3107.5 x 9.81 = √ 6.433
= 30.5kN = 2.54m x2.54m
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
In a stope panel with dimensions 30m x 30m. The VCR reef-body

panel is located 380m below surface. The support to be used
must be pre-stressed mine poles with a peak strength of 40tons.
The beam to be supported is 1.8m.
Calculate the SR.
Calculate the amount of sticks.
Calculate the support spacing.
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
SR = Force / Area Area = L x B Mass = Volume x Density

= 42908940N = 30m x 30m = 1620 x 2700
900m² = 900m² = 4374000kg
= 47676.6N/m²
SR = Force / Area Force = Mass x Acceleration

47676.6 = 40000x9,81)/Area = 4374000 x 9.81
Area = 4290840 = 42908940N
47676.6
= 8.38986m²
Amount of sticks = Total area / area per stick Spacing = √ 8.38986

= 900 = 2.9m x2.9m
8.4
= 108 sticks XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
Calculate the SR required to hold up the hangingwall with a FOS

of 1.5. The panel is 40m x 12m with a bedding plane that is
pulling loose at 1.8m. The stick load is 45t and the density in
2750kg/m³. Use 10m/s2 for gravity.
Calculate the amount and spacing of the sticks.
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
Area = L x B Mass = Volume x Density Force = Mass x Acceleration

= 40m x 12m = 864 x 2750 = 2376000 x 10
= 480m² = 2376000kg = 23760000N
SR = Force / Area SR = Force / Area

= 23760000N 74250 = 45000x10/Area
480m² Area = 450000
= 49500 x 1.5 74250
= 74250N/m² = 6.06m²
Spacing = √ 6.06 Amount of sticks = Total area / area per stick

= 2.46m x2.46m = 480
6.06
= 80 sticksXTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
WHAT IS ENERGY ABSORPTION?

The concept of energy absorption is based on the principle that during
dynamic deformation of the hangingwall, kinetic energy is imparted to an
ejected block of rock, which must be absorbed by the support units without
undergoing undue deformation.
E = 1 mv
2 m = mass of the rock
k 2 v = peak ejection velocity
During deformation, the support unit must not only resist the downward
movement of the hangingwall, but also absorb potential energy produced
by the acceleration of the rock in dynamic closure.
E = 1 mv 2
+ mgh h = dynamic closure
2 g = gravitational force XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
A rock with dimensions 1.6m x 1.2m x 0.95m high in the hangingwall has to be supported in
dynamic conditions. The rock has to be stopped and kept in position within a distance of
250mm. The ejection velocity is estimated to be 3m/s-1. The density of the rock is 2750kg/m3.
You have a choice of two types of tendon support units:
 The 20mm x 450MPa steel strength re-bar that can yield to failure at 6cm at a cost of
R32-00 per unit.
 The 20mm Cone bolt supplying 80kJ energy absorption up to 450mm at a cost of
R54-0 per unit.
Determine the amount of tendons to be installed in each case and evaluate the cost benefit of
your choice of tendon compared to the other.
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
Rock mass = 1.6 x 1.2 x 0.95 x 2750kg/m3

= 5016Kg
Energy released= 0.5 x 5016kg x 9 + 5016kg x 9.81 x 0.25
= 34.873kJ
Re-bar tendon σ =F
A
F = 450MPa x 0.000314
= 141.372kN
Energy absorbed (E) =FxD
= 141 372 x 0.06m
Re-bar = 8.48kJ Cone boltXTRACT
= 80kJ
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
Tendons required
Re-bar = 34.873Joule Cone bolt = 34.873Joule

8480 80 000
= 4.11 – (5) = 0.435 – (1)
Cost = 5 x 32-00 = 1 x R54-00

= R160-00 = R54-00
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
A rock 2.0m x 1.2m and 1.2m high has to be supported. Seismic

conditions are anticipated. The stoping width of 1.0m cannot be
safely mined at widths smaller than 0.8m. Assume a reasonable
ejection velocity.
Determine the required energy absorption of the support unit to stop

and hold the rock in position.
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
E = 1 mv 2 + mgh Mass = Volume x Density

2
= 2.88 x 2750
= 0.5 x 7920 x 3² + 7920 x 9.81 x 0.2 = 7920Kg
= 35640 + 15539.04
= 51179.04J
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
PRE-STRESSING SUPPORT
The purpose of pre-stressing is to exert a force to the hangingwall
immediately, to limit the downward deformation in the hangingwall.
The sooner pre-stressed support is installed, the faster and more efficiently
the hangingwall can be controlled.
Advantages of pre-stressing:
• It makes support active
• Support can be installed closer to the face
• Prevents blast out
• Prevents the hangingwall from unravelling
• Control bed separation XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
THE IMPORTANCE OF MAINTAINING THE CORRECT SUPPORT SPACING
The spacing or distances between support units installed on your mine, have
been specifically calculated so that they exert a sufficient forces on the
hangingwall beam:
1. To prevent the hangingwall beam from falling.

2. To permit controlled closure as the face advances.
3. To stop dynamic ground motion for causing total stope closure
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
TYPES OF SUPPORT
• Local Support
• Regional Support
• Temporary Support
• Permanent Support
• Active Support
• Passive Support
• Yielding Support (Soft)
• Non-yielding Support (Stiff) XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
CHARACTERISTICS OF SUPPORT UNITS
Deformation
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
ROOFBOLTING MECHANISMS
Three different mechanisms of strata reinforcement by means of bolting can be
distinguished, namely:
1. Reinforcement of laminated roof by suspension.

2. Reinforcement of laminated roof by friction effects.
3. Reinforcement of strata by control of post-failure deformation.
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
EXAMPLES OF SUSPENDING A LOOSE ROOF SLAB ON COMPETENT STRATA.

By suspension
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
Reinforcement of strata by control of post-failure deformation
Reinforcement of laminated roof by friction effects
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
When pre-tensioned steel tendons are installed they supply a force back into
the rock. This has the same effect as increasing the confinement and will
suppress failure. The rock in the sidewall of the excavation fails, but does not
necessarily fall over. If it stays in place it helps to build up confinement deeper
into the sidewall.
With an increase in confinement the strength of the rock in the sidewall of the
excavation also increases. If there is a sufficient increase, failure of the rock
will be suspended at a certain depth into the sidewall.
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

Creation of a c
Structural beam
GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
ESTIMATED EXTENT OF Design based on

ROCK MASS INSTABILITY Rock XTRACT
mass containment
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
CRITICAL BOND LENGTH
• The bounded length can be defined as critical when the total strength of
the bond is equal to the tensile strength of the tendon.
• When the bonded length is less than the critical length, sliding of the
tendon will occur.
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
Determine the critical bond length on a 16mm dia. , 450MPa

shepherd crook. Bond strength of grout is 2.50MPa.
Calculate the cross sectional area of the Shepard crook.
Calculate the maximum load the steel can handle.
Calculate the area on which the cement must bind to have the
same strength as the Shepard crook.
Calculate the length of the hole that must be grouted from the area
in previous question. XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
D 2 load
Area   
4 area
  0.016 2
 load  450000000  0.000201
4
 0.000201m 2
load  90450 N
load
  Area of Cylinder  DL
area
0.036m 2
load L 
Area  D
 0.036
L 
90450 N 0.050265
Area 
2500000 Pa  0.716m
Area  0.03618m 2 XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
STOPE SUPPORT
The primary function of stope support is to control the rock mass immediately
surrounding stoping excavations, that is, the zone of rock subjected to tensile
stresses around shallow and intermediate stopes, and the zone of fractured rock
around intermediate and deep stopes.
In designing a stope support system the following factors need to be taken into
account.
• The volume of rock to be supported.
• The integrity and degree of fracturing of the hangingwall strata.
• The influence of local geology.
• The amount and rate of stope closure.
• The size and shape of the excavation.

• The probability of rockbursts, and XTRACT
• The purpose and period for which the support is required. TRAINING SERVICES
GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
SHALLOW MINE STOPE SUPPORT
Shallow stopes typically require support resistances in excess of

those required in deep mines. This is because most of the rock
around shallow excavations is un-fractured and if failure does
occur, large volumes of rock can become unstable.
Low rates of stope closure are also typical of shallow mining

conditions and therefore support units must be stiff, but should
nevertheless be able to yield in a controlled manner.
The primary requirements of shallow mine support are:

1. To prevent local falls of ground
2. To prevent back-breaks or stope collapses.
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
DEEP MINE STOPE SUPPORT

Rockbursts constitute the major problem at depth.
Deep level stoping is characterised by fractured and broken rock conditions,
high rates of closure, the absence of tensile stress regions, large horizontal
clamping stresses, and the occurrence of violent rockbursting. The region of
potentially unstable hangingwall is typically small in vertical extent, but because
of the broken nature of the rock, is heavily dependent on the prevention of local
falls.
Support reaction forces need not be large to control normal rockfall hazards, but
it is important that these forces be generated rapidly by prompt installation.
Support units must maintain load over a large yielding range. They should also
be able to accommodate rapid displacements while maintaining their integrity
under rockburst conditions. XTRACT

TRAINING SERVICES
GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
DEEP STOPE PERMANENT SUPPORT
Rockburst resistant support types should ideally possess the following

performance characteristics:
• Stability during rockburst loading

• Rapid yielding capabilities
• Maintenance of load during and following the event
• Ability to withstand repeated events.
Support types which meet most or all of these requirements include props and
most types of packs, and backfill.
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
BACKFILL
Backfill has potential as a means of reducing both the incidence and damaging
effects of rockbursts, particularly if the fill is placed close to the face and in good
contact with the hangingwall. However, because of its low initial stiffness
characteristics, it is imperative in rockburst conditions that backfill be used in
combination with conventional rockburst resistant face support.
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
Backfill is used both for regional and local support in mines:
1. As regional support, backfill is required to reduce the volumetric

convergence in the mined out areas and the high stresses at the face to
positively influence the ERR and ESS values and consequently the
occurrence of seismic events.
2. As local support backfill is required to maintain the integrity of the fractured

rock mass, to improve local face conditions and to reduce rockburst
damage. Better stope width control can also be expected when using
backfill.
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
BACKFILL PERFORMANCE
As a result of retaining forces provided by geotextiles (Bags, curtains, planks),
the stresses increase rapidly in the fill, up to a transition point about 1 to 3
metres from the backfill edge. The stiffness in the fill increases with time,
moving the transition point closer to the backfill edge. The generation of stress
in the fill is mainly a function of stoping width and closure in the region. The
narrower the stope width, the greater the backfill stress reaction will be.
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
POROSITY OF BACKFILL
There is a direct relationship between the minimum porosity of backfill and
it’s load bearing capabilities. Backfills with low porosities takes stress with
considerably less strain than those do with higher porosities.
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
DIFFERENT BACKFILL BEHAVIOURS
200 CEM CEM - Cemented tailings

CT - Classified tailings
CT CW - Comminuted waste
150 FPT - Full plant tailings
CW
100
FPT
σ Mpa
50
0 10 20 30 40 50

STRAIN %
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES
GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
Backfill has other benefits besides its superior supporting capabilities.
These benefits include:
 Reduced ventilation losses
 Stiffening of the hangingwall beam, reducing the oscillation of the

hangingwall
 Reduced fire hazard
 Reduction of the seismic wave velocity
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
FOUR REASONS TO CONDUCT A MONITORING PROGRAMME
 RECORD THE NATURAL VALUES & VARIATIONS

 SAFETY DURING MINING (WARNING OF DEFORMATION)
 CONFIRM THE VALIDITY OF ASSUMPTION
 CONFIRM SUPPORT & LAYOUT PERFORMANCE
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
WHAT CAN BE MONITORED

 MOVEMENT ACROSS A FRACTURE / JOINT / FAULT
 SEPARATION ON FRACTURES
 CONVERGENCE
 DISPLACEMENTS IN THE ROCK PERIPHERY
 STRESSES IN BACKFILL
 LOAD CHANGES IN SUPPORT
OTHER VARIABLES DETERMINED INDIRECTLY
 ABSOLUTE STRESS IN THE ROCK- MASS

 SEISMIC EMISSIONS

 WAVE PROPAGATION VELOCITIES XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES
GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
PLAN & RUN A MONITORING PROGRAM
 DEFINE THE PROJECT CONDITIONS

 PREDICT MECHANISIMS THAT CONTROL BEHAVIOR
 DEFINE THE GEOTECHNICAL QUESTIONS
 DEFINE THE PURPOSE OF THE INSTRUMENTATION
 SELECT THE PARAMETERS TO BE MONITORED
 PREDICT MAGNITUDES OF CHANGE
 DEVISE REMEDIAL ACTION
 ASSIGN TASKS
 SELECT SITE INSTRUMENTS
 SELECT INSTRUMENT LOCATION
 PLAN RECORDING FACTORS – INFLUENCE MEASURED DATA
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
 ESTABLISH PROCEDURES FOR READING CORRECTNESS

 LIST SPECIFIC PURPOSE OF EACH INSTRUMENT
 PREPARE BUDGET
 WRITE INSTRUMENT PROCUREMENT SPECIFICATION
 PLAN INSTALLATION
 PLAN REGULAR CALIBRATIONS & MAINTENANCE
 PLAN DATA COLLECTION, PROCESSING, PRESENTATION,
 REPORTING AND IMPLEMENTATION
 WRITE CONTRACTUAL ARRANGEMENTS
 UPDATE BUDGET
 PROCURE INSTRUMENTS
 COLLECT, PROCESS AND PRESENT DATA
 REPORT CONCLUSIONS
 IMPLEMENT RESULTS OF THE STUDY
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
BOREHOLE EXTENSOMETER
MEASURING AXIAL DEFORMATION IN A BOREHOLE
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
COM WIRE EXTENSOMETER

MEASURING AXIAL DEFORMATION IN A BOREHOLE (LARGE BED SEPARATION)
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
VERNIER SURFACE EXTENSOMETER

MEASURING MOVEMENTS ON ROCK SURFACES
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
TAPE EXTENSOMETER
MEASURING CONVERGENCE IN EXCAVATIONS
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
CSIR DOORSTOPPER STRAIN CELL

MEASURING IN SITU STRESSES OR STRESS CHANGES.
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
CSIRO TRIAXIAL HOLLOW INCLUSION STRESS CELL

MEASURING ABSOLUTE STRESS
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
VERNIER CLOSURE METER

MEASURING CONVERGENCE
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
COM STOPE CLOSURE METER

MEASURING CLOSURE IN STOPES
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
COM CLOSURE METER

REMOTE MONITORING OF CONVERGENCE IN STOPES
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
COM CLOSURE / RIDE METER

DETERMINING CLOSURE AND RIDE AT A POINT IN A STOPE
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
PETROSCOPE
EXAMINING INTENSITY, EXTENT AND ORIENTATION OF FRACTURING
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
When unsupported, such spalling taking place on an orepass could cause the
rock at the perimeter to fail, extending further and further into the solid, as lesser
confinement is available in the failed zone. Tipping ore into these passes would
aggravate the extend of failure, due to the tipped rock breaking off the damaged
outer shell of the orepass, causing the fracture zone to extend even further.
Ideally, strata layers should be intersected as close to normal as possible and
ore-passes be mined in the direction of the major principal stress direction.
σ2
σ3
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES

GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
To determine the stress distribution surrounding an infinite circular tunnel

under bi-axial loading
KIRSCH EQUATIONS
 R 2
   4 R 2
3 R 4
 
 r  1 2  v (1  k ) 1  2   1 2  v  (1  k ) 1  2  4   cos 2
 r    r r 
 R 2
   3 R 4

1 1
   2  v (1  k ) 1  2   2  v  (1  k ) 1  4   cos 2
 r    r 
 2 R 2
3 R 4

 r  1  v (1  k ) 1  2  4  sin 2
2
 r r  XTRACT
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GEOSTRAT
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Stress distribution around a circular tunnel (Bi-axial loading)
σθ
3q
σr
2q
σθ
q -q
0 q
σr
R 2r 3r 4r 5r
XTRACT
TRAINING SERVICES
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GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
Stress fields surrounding excavations

Determine the radial and tangential stresses along a circular tunnel with
diameter 4.0m situated at a depth of 1800m below surface in quartzite. The
Poisson's ratio is 0.33. The major stress component acts perpendicular to the
excavation and is a product of the virgin stress components only. Determine the
radial and tangential stress components on the edge of the excavation as well as
at points 0.5m 1.0m 1.5m and 2.0m progressively from the edge of the excavation
into the solid along the excavation. Except that the rock reacts elastically.
 R 2
   4 R 2
3 R 4

1 1
 r  2  v (1  k ) 1  2   2  v  (1  k ) 1  2  4   cos 2
 r    r r 
 R 2
   3 R 4

1 1
   2  v (1  k ) 1  2   2  v  (1  k ) 1  4   cos 2
 r    r 
XTRACT
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GEOSTRAT
T r a i n i n g
Stress fields surrounding excavations

r=0
σr = 0
q = 2750 x 1800 x 9.81 q=
= 48.56MPa
σθ = 117.105 MPa q = Virgin Stress = σv
r = 0.5m
σr = 16.694MPa  = Rock Density
σθ = 84.172MPa K h = Depth Below Surface
(1  )
r = 1.0m g = Gravity
σr = 22.088MPa 0.33
K  = Poisons Ratio
σθ = 69.958MPa
r = 1.5m
1  0.33
σr = 24.089MPa K  0.49
σθ = 62.638MPa
r = 2.0m
σr = 24.880MPa
σθ = 58.390MPa
XTRACT
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Rock Quality Designation (RQD) : The ratio of the length of core recovered,
counting those pieces of 100mm or longer, to the total length of core
expressed as a percentage.
Core re cov ered 100mm or longer
RQD  100
Total length of drillrun
RQD is a directionally dependent parameter and its value may change
significantly, depending upon the borehole orientation. The use of the
volumetric joint count can be quite useful in reducing this directional
dependence.
RQD is intended to represent the rock mass quality in situ. When using
diamond drill core, care must be taken to ensure that fractures, which have
been caused by handling or the drilling process, are identified and ignored
when determining the value of RQD. XTRACT
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The Point load test

A quick way of estimating the UCS of the rock is to use the Point Load Test. The load is applied
diametrically or axially to core 50- 55 mm or on a lump via two hardened steel points attached to
a hydraulic ram. The specimen fails in tension and the UCS is estimated by:
P
I 
s D 2
Where P is the force at failure and D is the diameter of the specimen.
The Is ( Point load index) is then related to the UCS by:
UCS (σc) = 24 x Is for 50 mm diameter samples
UCS (σc) = (14 + 0.175D) Is - For other values of D.
The load must be applied at least 0.7 D from either end of the core. Multiple repeat required for
fair accuracy.
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XTRACT
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Determine the force at failure obtained from a Point Load Test on a 50 mm

diameter core, if the USC was calculated to be 180 MPa, based on the result of
this test.
UCS ( )  24  I for 50mm dia. samples

c s
180
I
24 s
I  7.5Mpa
s
P
I 
s D2
P
7.5Mpa 
0.0025
P  7500000  0.0025
P  18.75 KPa XTRACT
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When rock is subjected to confinement, it’s strength increases rapidly. This strengthening
behaviour contributes to:
1. The reduction of fracturing depth around stressed excavations

2. Increased strength and load bearing capabilities of pillars
__
__
__
Axial __
stress __
__
__
__
__
__
__
Axial strain
The strengthening behaviour is described by the linear Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion

σ1 = σc + βσ3
XTRACT
Where β (The strengthening parameter takes on values of between 3 to 10 (Strong rocks)
TRAINING SERVICES
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GEOSTRAT
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Fracturing around ore-passes in highly stressed ground
In deep mines, very severe spalling and self-mining problems have manifested
in operational ore passes, particularly when traversing weak rock formations.
The extent of the magnitude of the stresses acting on the ore-pass in the X
and Y directions would influence the mode of failure of these openings.
Fracturing in the minor stress direction tends to extend further into the rock
mass and lesser in the intermediate direction.
The extent of fracturing again would be dependent on the rock strength and
the magnitude of the stress field.
XTRACT
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Geostrat SCSL4

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GEOSTRAT

DAY 1: BASIC THEORY

DAY 2: ROCK STRENGTH

ss: Is the amount of matter in a body measured in Kilograms

Density: Mass per unit volume.

ss: The force exerted per unit area.

NORMAL STRESS CAN EITHER BE :

COMPRESSIVE STRESS TENDS TO SHORTEN A BODY

TENDS TO LENGTHEN ( STRETCH ) A BODY

A press is used to test the compression characteristics of a 800mm x 800mm

A block of rock measuring 1m x 1m and 1m high rests on a concrete floor. If

Calculate the stress at a depth of 975m in a Witwatersrand gold mine.

Volume  Length  Width  Height Mass  Volume  Density

 1m  1m  975m  975m 3  2700kg / m 3

A cylindrical rock specimen having a diameter of 42mm was tested to destruction

 L0    (Compressive strain is positive)

A cylindrical rock specimen which is 85.5mm long is placed in a press and

New Length  Original Length  Deformatio n

If a length of steel wire which is originally 0.94m long is stretched by 0.25m,

TWO TYPE OF DEFORMATIONS

 ELASTIC DEFROMATION (TEMPORARY)

 IN-ELASTIC DEFORMATION (PERMANENT)

Elasticity: The property of a material whereby it returns to its original form or

ORIGINAL STOPING WIDTH

One Axis One/Uniaxial

Uniaxial compression: The state of a body under the influence of a

One Axis XTRACT

Determine the maximum virgin stress component in:

 2750kg / m 3  9.81m / s 2  3200m x 0.5

 3235 kg / m 3  9.81m / s 2  850m  3.2

Calculate the K – Ratio of a Gold mine situated a 2750 m below surface in

Quartzite if the horizontal stress component is based on the equation - σh

Calculate both the vertical and horizontal stresses at a point underground

 2700Kg / m  9.81m / s  1890m

Calculate the vertical and horizontal stress at a point underground at a

 2700Kg / m  9.81m / s  970m

76500000Pa  3000Kg / m 3  9.81m / s 2  h

The stress caused by mining

THE MAGNITUDE OF INDUCED STRESS DEPENDS ON THE SIZE,

FIELD STRESS = IS A COMBINATION OF THE PRIMITIVE STRESS

Virgin Stress Induced Stress Virgin Stress

Tectonic stresses are generated as a result of geologically driven

ROCK STRENGTH TESTING IN THE LABORATORY

 Uni-axial compressive strength (UCS)

ROCK STRENGTH TESTING IN THE LABORATORY

 A minimum of 5 tests are required to establish a reasonable average of the

Schematic representation of a UCS and Tri-axial compressive test

Uni-axial Compressive Test Tri-axial Compressive Test

Point of brittle failure - Peak strength

If the stress applied to a rock sample is 130.52MPa, calculate the Young’s

Influence of test machine stiffness

THE FOLLOWING ARE TYPICAL UNI-AXIAL COMPRESSIVE STRENGTHS

MATERIAL UCS (MPA)

Tri-axial compression: The state of a body under the influence of compressive

STRESS COMPONENTS IN THREE DIMENSIONS

Shear strength of discontinuities:

In a shear test, each specimen is subjected to a stress normal (σn) to the

ROCK JOINTS AND ROCK MASS STRENGTH

Discontinuities may contain different infilling materials.

The presence of such materials will influence the strength of discontinuities as

Shear stress: The stress acting parallel to a plane resulting in shear

Symbol = τ (Tau) Units = Pascal

σn is the stress acting normal to the plane of weakness

Shear strength of rough surfaces