Ch 3.

2 Equilibrium and Change

Equilibrium - Describes the state of an ecosystem
with relatively constant conditions over time.
- Most natural ecosystems are in a state of
equilibrium
- The abiotic conditions, and populations are
stable
- Example - a mature forest, grassland, desert and
tundra ecosystems are sustained over time
Succession - The gradual and predictable changes
in the composition of a community and abiotic
conditions following a disturbance.
- The disturbance can be an ecological event
(flood, landslide, volcanic
eruption etc), fire, or human
caused (mining, pollution,
farmland, urban expansion)
- After the disturbance, there is a gradual change
as life begins to reappear.
- Pioneer species move into the region first such
as lichen, grasses and perennials. These have
fast reproduction and can withstand harsh
conditions (ie sun and wind).

Fire mosses move in after fire

Lichen and mosses on rock
Dwarf fireweed - have roots that can grow in
shallow soil
Over time slower growing and taller species begin
to become established and the area becomes more
shaded.
Climax Community - At the end of succession a
Climax community is reached. This is an ecological
community in which populations of plants or
animals remain stable and exist in balance with
each other and their environment.
The climax
community that
forms is a
reflection of the
abiotic
conditions:
Coniferous forest (evergreen trees): Cooler
average temperatures, moderate rain
Temperate deciduous forest (maple, oak, ash etc):
Warmer temperatures compared to coniferous
forest, moderate rain
Tundra (mosses, flowering plants, shrubs)- low
temperatures and precipitation
Grasslands (grasses, perennials, shrubs):- lower
precipitation compared to forest ecosystems
Importance of succession
- It allows natural ecosystems to recover from a
disturbance
- It increases biodiversity since each stage
encourages the growth of different populations
- Old, stagnant ecosystems can be regenerated
through succession -
- eg. a controlled forest fire can clear out old forest
growth, and allow new pioneer species to move
in, generating increased biodiversity.
Two Types of Succession:
Primary succession - Succession on newly
exposed ground
where soil is not yet
established
Example - a volcanic
eruption, raised land
from an earthquake,
exposed rock after a
glacial retreat.
- Due to the time it take for soil to become
established, primary succession takes hundreds
of years
- Weathering of exposed rock mixed with
decomposing lichen and moss begins to form a
thin layer of soil
that thickens over
time as plants
begin to take root.
Secondary Succession - Occurs in a partially
disturbed ecosystem where soil is already
established. This occurs more quickly, in about 100
years, as plants can begin to move in immediately.
 Ch 3.3 The Importance of Biodiversity
Biodiversity - The variety of life in a particular
ecosystem.
- Biodiversity is highest in the tropical rainforest
where it is warmer with lots of water
- In a Peruvian rainforest, 283 tree species are found
per hectare, whereas there are fewer than 15 tree
species in a similar sized area of the deciduous
forest in Ontario.
Biodiversity decreases in more extreme conditions
Eg tundra, desert.
Importance of biodiversity - High biodiversity
creates more stable food webs, which is essential
for all life on Earth.
Video Ecosystem Services - https://youtu.be/BCH1Gre3Mg0

Species at Risk - Habitats are being destroyed

through unsustainable practices such as
deforestation, urban and agricultural expansion,
pollution, and climate change. This causes
populations to drop and potentially cause some to
go extinct.
Ch 3.4/3.5/3.6 and 3.7 Human Impacts on
Habitats and Populations

Habitat Loss - when plants or animals experience

a change in their natural environment (through
destruction or degradation) that means they cannot
access food, water, or shelter as they normally
would.
Impacts of habitat loss
Ecological - indigenous species can become
threatened or possibly become extirpated or
extinct. This could impact the entire food web - eg
honeybees are essential to plant reproduction.
Economic - Damage to crops, or livestock
Tourism - degradation of water - based recreation
or wildlife viewing
Health - Disease causing organisms are
introduced or pesticide usage introduces
Types of Habitat loss

Habitat conversion - Expansion of cities,

farmland for crops or pasture, or from climate
change
- In aquatic ecosystems wetlands are often filled
in or drained for conversion to agriculture.
Coastlines and waterfronts are cleared for
human use, and waterways are dredged for
boat traffic.
Controlling habitat loss - In Ontario many efforts
are being made to protect biodiversity by controlling
urban sprawl, especially in fragile ecosystems.
Education allows people to take action in various
ways. Captive breeding help introduce species back
into the wild. Land bridge connects two smaller
habitats
Loggerhead Shrikes prefer open country
such as pastures, grasslands, and
agricultural fields. The shrikes require
scattered small trees, shrubs or
hedgerows for foraging perches and
nesting sites.
Due to the serious drop in the
Loggerhead shrike population, a captive-
breeding program was launched in
Ontario and Quebec; wild populations
may be increased by releasing birds bred
in captivity;
Invasive species - An organism that is not
indigenous to an area and whose intentional or
accidental introduction negatively impacts the
natural environment.
- Usually introduced species can’t compete with
indigenous species and their populations don’t
become established
- Occasionally an introduced species comes from
another area that had similar abiotic conditions
and it can adapt to its new environment.
Furthermore, it may not have any natural
predators, allowing its population to increase.
This causes increased competition for resources
with the indigenous species, causing their
populations to decrease.
- Examples: Purple loosestrife invaded Canadian
wetlands. Originally from Europe was brought
to Canada as seeds in imported and also by
european settlers who used it an an ornimental
garden plant.
Zebra mussels were introduced
initially the Great Lakes through
the discharge of contaminated
cargo ship ballast water in 1986.
Originally from Asia Invasive Carp were brought to
north America in fish farms. They compete with
native fish by eating their food and becoming food
for other predatory fish.
More examples table 2 page 92
Controlling Invasive species
Stop accidental and intentional introduction: Laws
prevent people from bringing species into Canada.
This can be difficult to implement especially with
smaller species that can go undetected.
Awareness can help slow spread but
not stop it (eg emerald ash
borer)
Chemical control - Chemicals called pesticides
can kill pests that damage crops and forests.
However their use could kill non-target species and
introduce chemicals into the environment that are
harmful to humans
Mechanical control -
Using physical barriers or
physically removing the
invasive species. The
drawback to this method
is that it can be costly and
time consuming

Teens removing
invasive buckthorn
Example - Hamilton harbour barriers at the entrance
to Cootes Paradise marsh protect it from carp.
Smaller fish are able to swim in and out of the
wetland through the barrier.
Biological Control - The use of intentionally
introduced organisms that help control the invasive
species. The drawback is that the newly introduced
species, although intended to help, may end up
becoming invasive itself.
Biologists must carefully
research before a new
species is introduced.
Aleiodes indiscretus wasp parasitizing a Lymantria
dispar dispar caterpillar. Photo by Scott Bauer, USDA
Agricultural Research Service, Bugwood.org
For example in Ontario three insect species were
introduced which feed on the Purple Loosestrife
population, an invasive plant that grows in wetlands.
Pollution - Harmful contaminants released into the
environment. Examples:

Acid Precipitation - certain

chemicals in the air can
combine with water vapour
to create acidic compounds,
making the precipitation more
acidic than usual.
- Two chemicals that contribute to
acid rain are sulfur oxides and
nitrogen oxides that are
produced from the burning of
fossil fuels.
- When aquatic ecosystem
become too acidic, microscopic
phytoplankton are negatively
impacted. Since they are at the
bottom of the food chain, all
- In soil, acid rain can
deplete nutrient availability
which damages plants and
results in slower growth.

- Acid rain can be controlled by using

environmentally friendly energy sources. In
eastern Canada, emissions of Sulfur dioxide
decline by over 60% between 1980 and 2001.
Oil spills - Oil extraction and Oil tankers that
navigate oceans can accidentally spill oil into the
ocean. Oil is toxic and slow to break down and
difficult to clean up. Oil slicks on the surface of
Ocean water are especially harmful to seabirds.
Cleaning up an oil spill:
1 - Skimming/vacuuming
2 - bioremediation - microorganisms decompose
the oil into less harmful chemicals

3 - burning oil

4 - Dispersal agents -
breaking oil slicks into
small droplets that are
Diluted by wave action an
eventually broken down
by decomposers
Plastics - Plastics do not chemically degrade and
can remain in the environment for hundreds or
thousands of years.
Plastics can trap/
entangle fish, turtles,
birds and Marine
mammals like dolphins
and whales. Consumed
plastics can block an
animals digestive system.
Physically removing plastic garbage and disposing
of it properly and discontinuing its use will help
clean up the environment
Consumption and Resource management

Forestry Practices - Wood is an important

resource used in construction, and the making of
paper products. 60% of Canada’s forests have
been cut at least once. This removal of forests
results in habitat loss that should be carefully
managed to allow for its regrowth.
Three methods of forest harvesting:

Clear-cutting - the removal of all or most of the

trees in a given area that take the shape of large
blocks, strips, or smaller patches. It is intended to
recreate the pattern produced by a forest fire
This method is economical and efficient and
accounts for 90% of harvested trees. Regeneration
can occur naturally or artificially by planting
seedlings. Both result in forests of even-aged
trees. To help with natural regeneration, some
high-quality “seed trees” are left behind.
Drawbacks of clearcutting - Following clear-cutting,
nutrients are lost from the soil, and erosion
increases . Sediment entering streams harms fish
spawning areas, and nutrients increase the growth
shelterwood cutting - The
forest is thinned of mature trees
in a series of two or more cuts in
long narrow parallel strips. This
permits regeneration under the
shelter of remaining trees which
can be natural or artificial.
Selective cutting - Removing
individual/small groups of trees based
on their maturity/health/value. Parks
may selectively remove trees that are
damaged/old or to improve the forest
appearance. A forester may only
remove the best tree types of the best
profit.
In 1993, the International Forest Stewardship
Council was founded to set criteria and certify
forest management practices that are sustainable.
About 13% of the world's forests are
now eco-certified. Sustainable forest
practices balance tree harvests with
growth rates, protect fish and wildlife
habitat, protect waterways, and
maintain biodiversity.
WIldlife Management: Hunting for food and sport
must not exceed a population’s ability to replace
itself. In Canada animal populations are monitored,
and can be controlled using managed hunts.
Hunters must purchase a hunting license which
limits the number of
wildlife they are
allowed to catch at
certain times of the
year.
A historically significant management practice was
implemented On 2 July 1992. The federal
government banned cod fishing along Canada’s
east coast.
This moratorium ended nearly five centuries of cod
fishing in Newfoundland and Labrador. Cod had
played a central role in the province’s economy
and culture. The aim of the
policy was to help restore
cod stocks that had been
depleted due to overfishing
Today, the cod population
remains too low to support
a full-scale fishery.