1.

1 Inside the Atom

1 Matter and Radiation 1.2 Stable and Unstable Nuclei
1.3 Photons
“3.2.1-4 Particles & 1.4 Particles & Antiparticles
Radiation” 1.5 Particle Interactions
Practice Exam Questions

7407 / 7408 PHYSICS KS5 Animated Science

2022
Interactive Links
Title What to do Site Type URL
View PE vs r graph for approaching
Atomic interactions PhET Sim https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/atomic-int
atoms, different nuclei, + forces eractions/latest/atomic-interactions_en.html
Bohr's Theory of View Wave/particles models for different
Fendt Sim http://www.walter-fendt.de/html5/phen/bohr
the Hydrogen Atom principle quantum numbers model_en.htm
Make isotopes of elements, view
Isotopes and
abundance, calculate average atomic PhET Sim https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/isotopes-
Atomic Mass and-atomic-mass/latest/isotopes-and-atomic-m
mass
ass_en.html
Plum pudding vs Change positive charge from diffuse to Molecular
Sim http://mw.concord.org/nextgen/#interactives/p
Rutherford concentrated fire alpha particles Workbench hysics/electrostatics-physics/concentrating-char
View alpha particle expt with different ge-electric-fields-physics
Rutherford
nuclei, change energy, view single nuclei, PhET Sim https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/rutherfor
Scattering d-scattering/latest/rutherford-scattering_en.ht
compare with plum pudding model
ml
Structure of the View probable positions of electrons in Molecular
Sim http://mw.concord.org/nextgen/#interactives/p
atom atoms Workbench hysics/the-atom-physics/structure-atom-physics
Understanding Dartboard as analogy for probability Molecular
Sim http://mw.concord.org/nextgen/#interactives/p
probability maps distribution of electrons Workbench hysics/the-atom-physics/understanding-probabi
Hydrogen Atom Try out for the hydrogen atom energy levels lity-maps-physics
https://foothill.edu/astronomy/astrosims/hydrogen-
Simulator using the equation 1/n2 Foothill Edu SIM atom/

Animated Science
2022
 1.1 Inside the Atom (3.2.1.1) 1 hour I can.... (tick off)

 Describe a model of the

Learning Objectives... Assessment Practice.... atom including protons,

1. Simple model of the atom,

KF 1. PHYA1 May 2013 Q1
neutrons and electrons.
 Identify the charge and
including the proton, neutron 2. PHYA1 January 2013 Q1 (a) mass of the proton, neutron
and electron. Charge and mass 3. PHYA1 June 2012 Q 2 (a) and electron in SI and
of the proton, neutron and 4. PHYA1 June 2012 Q2 (b) relative units.
electron in SI units and relative 5. PHYA1 May 2014 Q Q2 (a) (i) (ii) (iii)  Define specific charge and
units. calculate the specific
charges of the proton and
2. Specific charge of the proton ICT Links... the electron and of nuclei
and the electron, and of nuclei and ions.
and ions. 1. http://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/build-an
-atom
 Identify the unit of specific
3. Proton number Z, nucleon charge.
number A, nuclide notation. &  Define proton number and
AZ Stretch and Challenge... nucleon number and
recognise nuclear notation.
4. Meaning of isotopes and the use Why was specific charge important in the  Explain the meaning of
of isotopic data discovery of the electron by J.J. Thomson? isotopes.
 Analyse isotopic data.
Skills
AO1 – Demonstration of knowledge of simple models of the atom. I need further help with....
PS2.2 Present masses in SI and relative units.
MS2.3 Substitute numerical values into algebraic equations to calculate specific charge.
MS2.4 Solve algebraic equations involving masses and charges of nuclei and ions.
AO2 Demonstrate knowledge and understanding isotopes and analyse isotope data.

Animated Science
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 Mr D Powell
2022
Animated Science
2022
1.1 Inside the Atom

The Big Question: Thinking about a suitable model of the atom to

help us understand structure and the concept of specific charge.
Relating this to isotopes.

describe a simple
model of the atom

Explain the meaning of an isotope and

analyse isotopic data.

Work out the specific charge for ions, atoms or

nuclei in a variety of situations.

Why was specific charge important in the discovery

of the electron by J.J. Thomson?
Animated Science
2022
Periodic Table

 The periodic table is a way of arranging elements on the basis of

chemical and physical properties

 It runs in order of proton number and all atoms of an element

have the same number of protons

 Isotopes of elements can have different masses to elements as

they have extra or less neutrons.

Animated Science
2022
 M

Animated Science
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Periodic Table

 Look at this image and a real copy of the table and get familiar with
the elements.

Animated Science
2022
 Relative atomic
Periodic Table Mass (A)

This is an example of how elements are

shown on a periodic table. Atomic number
(proton number) 5 10.811

B
“Z”
It is more complex than GCSE as the
relative atomic mass is shown as a
decimal. Symbol
BORON

In this case the Boron occurs as 80.1%

with 11 nucleons and 19.9% as 10
Elemental name
nucleons.

We take an average of the two weighted

for 80/20% to find the relative atomic
A = Atomic mass number
mass of a usual sample found occurring
naturally. Z = number of protons or
atomic number or proton
We often use “A” for the total atomic number
mass (neutrons + protons) and “Z” for A-Z = number of neutrons
atomic number or proton number Animated Science
2022
The A to Z of Isotopes - Modelling
Key
Neutron - n
Task…
Proton = p
1. Make the atomic models for all the
isotopes you see on your sheet. You will Electron = e
need 6 of each particle.
https://youtu.be/89HOZGe1wyU
2. Draw out the diagrams OR discuss as
Group
Hydrogen
3. What is a strength of this model?

4. What are two weaknesses of the model?

Protons = 1
Neutrons = 0
Electrons = 1

Animated Science
2018
Atoms Model Questions OR Worksheet Key

Hydrogen Deuterium Tritium Neutron = n

Proton = p

Electron = e

A = Atomic Mass
Z = Proton/ Atomic
number

2 x Helium Helium Lithium Carbon

Animated Science
2022
Atoms Model Questions OR Worksheet Key

Hydrogen Deuterium Tritium Neutron = n

Proton = p

Electron = e

A = Atomic Mass
Z = Proton/ Atomic
number

2 x Helium Helium Lithium Carbon

Animated Science
2022
For A2…..

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helium-3

First-generation fusion fuels

2
D + 2D → 3
He + 1 3.268 MeV 0.306
0n

2
D + 2D → 3
T+1 4.032 MeV 0
1p

2
D + 3T → 4
He + 1 17.571 MeV 0.057
0n

Animated Science
2022
Isotopes Defined....
Isotopes are simply heavier or lighter versions of the same
atom. They will have more or less neutrons that the most
abundant version but the same number of protons and
electrons.
Hydrogen is a good example as shown here where you can see
the most common and stable version but if you add 1 neutron
you get another isotope which is commonly called deuterium
(used in nuclear reactors) or 2 neutrons to get (tritium – used
in fusion bombs (our nuclear deterrent)

half-
abun­dance % life (t1/2) mode pro­duct

99.99 stable

0.01 stable

trace 12.32 y β− 3
He
Animated Science
2018
Atomic Structure - Geissler Tubes & Spectral Lines.... Hydrogen Helium

An elemental gas can be excited by collisions

with electrons from an electric current. The
atoms then emit light of specific wavelengths
which can be passed through a diffraction
grating or spectrometer. This splits the light up
so each emission can be seen.
Each line relations to a specific electron moving
between an energy level giving proof of the
structure of the atom.

Reduced Ek
E=hf

E3

e- with Ek
+ +
E2

E1
gain Ek
An electron collides with an atomic electron A photon of the exact energy E = hf to match an
which gains some Ek moving out an energy level energy level is emitted by an atomic electron to
(or several) move it down a level Animated Science
2018
What is specific charge?

This is the amount of

charge per kilogram of
matter….

This is the specific

charge on a proton….

Just be clear if you are dealing with items with different masses and
charges….
1. Nucleus
2. Ion
3. Particle
4. atom Animated Science
2022
Quick Questions

1. What is charge measured in?

2. What is the mass of a proton?

3. What is the mass of a neutron?

4. What is the charge on an electron?

5. What is the mass of a Helium nucleus?

6. What is the specific charge of a Helium

nucleus?

7. What are units of specific charge?

8. What does the term “A” refer to on the

periodic table?

9. What does the term “Z” refer to....

10. What are nucleons?

Animated Science
2022
1.1 Inside the Atom
Low Challenge

Higher Challenge

A) P = 14, N = 14, E = 14 (2 marks)

PA
B)
i) same e and p, different number of neutrons often decay to X/8
become more stable (2 marks)
ii) 137-55 = 82 ( 1 mark)
iii) 92 x -1.6 x10-19C / 236 x 1.67x-27 = 37.3 x 106C/kg (2 marks) …%
iv) X = 236 – 137 – 4 = 95 (1 mark)
Animated Science
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Challenge Grid 1 pt
• Roll your dice twice to get the coordinates of the squares. 2 pts
• Look at the topic and tell a partner person everything you can 3 pts
remember about the item, if they think you understand you get the
points. Highest scoring pair wins! (you need at least 20 points)
1 2 3 4 5 6
9.6 x 107
1 proton Specific charge Neutron A Ckg-1
Ckg-1

Qe/me A
2 atom Neutron Z Isotope

Ion Helium Ion

3 charge A Nuclide specific nucleus specific
charge specific charge charge

Qp/mp Nucleus
4
Helium nucleus
specific Q/m proton Neutron
specific charge
charge
5 nucleus Neutron proton particle Ckg-1 Neutron

6 Qn/mn Z element atom 9.6 x 107 Ckg-1 Isotope

Animated Science
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Summary Questions

Animated Science
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Summary Questions p5
1)

a)
I. 6p, 6n
II. 8p, 8n
III. 92p, 143
IV. 11p,13n
V. 29p,34n

b)

i)

ii) and

Animated Science
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Summary Questions p5

2)
a) Neutron
b) electron
c) neutron

Animated Science
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Summary Questions p5

3)
a) +3.2 x 10-19C
b) 63
c) 3.04 x 106Ckg-1

Animated Science
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Summary Questions p5

4)
a) 2.67 x 10-26kg
b) 8 neutrons and 10 electrons

Animated Science
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1.1 All Answers…

Animated Science
2022
1.1 Inside the Atom
(a) The most abundant isotope of cobalt is represented by . 59Co27 How many protons, neutrons and orbital
electrons are there in a neutral atom of this element?

........................................ protons

........................................ neutrons Low Challenge

........................................ electrons (2)

(b) How is the nuclide that has one less proton than the nickel nuclide 59
Ni28 represented?

................................................................................................................... (2)

(c) (i) The heaviest isotope of hydrogen, whose nucleon number is 3, is called tritium. How is tritium
represented?
.......................................................................................................................
(ii)
Higher Challenge
Calculate the charge per unit mass, in C kg–1, for a tritium nucleus.

................................................................................................

................................................................................................ (3)

(Total 7 marks)

Animated Science
2022
 1.1 Inside the Atom PA
(a) The most abundant isotope of cobalt 59Co27 is represented by . How many protons,
neutrons and orbital electrons are there in a neutral atom of this element? /7
........................................ protons Low Challenge
........................................ neutrons
........................................ electrons (2) …%

(b) How is the nuclide that has one less proton than the nickel 59Ni28 nuclide; represented?
...................................................................................................................(2)

(c) (i) The heaviest isotope of hydrogen, whose nucleon number is 3, is called tritium.
How is tritium represented?

.......................................................................................................................
(ii) Calculate the charge per unit mass, in C kg–1, for a tritium nucleus.
................................................................................................
................................................................................................ (3)

Higher Challenge (Total 7 marks)

Animated Science
2022
 Learning Check... AS
PA
(a) The most abundant isotope of cobalt 59Co27 is represented by . How many
protons, neutrons and orbital electrons are there in a neutral atom of this X/7
element?
27 Low Challenge
........................................ protons
32
........................................ neutrons …%
27
........................................ electrons (2)

(b) How is the nuclide that has one less proton than the nickel 59Ni28 nuclide;
represented? 58
Co27 58
X27
...................................................................................................................(2)
(c) (i) The heaviest isotope of hydrogen, whose nucleon number is 3, is
called tritium. How is tritium represented?

......................................................................................................................
.
(ii) Calculate the charge per unit mass, in C kg–1, for a tritium nucleus.
................................................................................................
................................................................................................ (3)
High Challenge
Animated Science
(Total 7 marks) 2022
What am I thinking of?

Animated Science
2022
 1.2 Stable and Unstable Nuclei (3.2.1.2) p6 I can.... (tick off)

1. Describe the strong

Learning Objectives...
1. The strong nuclear force; its
role in keeping the nucleus
stable; short-range
attraction up to KF
approximately 3 fm, very-
short range repulsion closer
than approximately 0.5 fm.
2. Unstable nuclei; alpha and
beta decay.
3. Equations for alpha decay, β-
decay including the need for
the neutrino.
4. The existence of the
neutrino was hypothesised
to account for conservation
of energy in beta decay.
Assessment Practice.... nuclear force and its role
in keeping the nucleus
PHYA1 May 2013 Q2(b)(i) stable.
PHYA1 May 2013 Q2 (a)(iv) 2. Recognise that the strong
PHYA1 May 2011 Q2
PHYA1 May 2010 Q2 (b) (c)
nuclear force has a short
range attraction and a
very short range
SAM 013 repulsion.
3. Associate distance below
ICT Links... 0.5 fm with repulsion and
between 0.5 and 3.0 fm
https://www.walter-fendt.de/html5/phen/dec with attraction.
aychains_en.htm 4. Describe alpha decay and
beta decay.
5. Illustrate alpha beta decay
Stretch and Challenge... using equations.
6. Deduce why the neutrino
Identify a radioactive decay series and analyse is necessary in beta decay.
the types of decay taking place that lead to the
series. I need further help with....

Skills
AO1 – Demonstration of knowledge of strong nuclear force.
AO2 – Apply knowledge and understanding of scientific ideas, processes, techniques and
procedures when handling quantitative data.
AO2 – Apply knowledge and understanding of alpha and beta decay to analyse and
complete equations representing the decay. Animated Science
2022
 Mr D Powell
2022
Animated Science
2022

1.2 Stable and Unstable Nuclei

Learning Objectives...
1. The strong nuclear force; its role in
keeping the nucleus stable; short-
range attraction up to approximately 3
fm, very-short range repulsion closer
than approximately 0.5 fm.
You may remember this from
GCSE studies?
Can you talk about why this is
using the ideas from last
lesson...

2. Unstable nuclei; alpha and beta decay.

3. Equations for alpha decay, β- decay

including the need for the neutrino.

4. The existence of the neutrino was

hypothesised to account for
conservation of energy in beta decay.

Animated Science
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Animated Science
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Alpha Decay....
Alpha particles can be viewed with a Cloud
Chamber….

Trent College – small ones alpha

Trent Thoriated Welding - alpha
Pasco - LF – Alpha
Pasco – LF - Cosmic

Alpha particles tracks

Animated Science
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GCSE Version…

Animated Science
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GCSE Version…

Animated Science
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Beta Decay....

Animated Science
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Aurora…

1. a high-energy
particle from the
magnetosphere
collides with an air
molecule in the
upper atmosphere

2. the air molecule is

excited - has more
energy

3. the air molecule

then gives off this
excess energy in
the form of light in
order to get back
to the original
energy level
Animated Science
2022
Aurora Colour…

Animated Science
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Plenary / Conclusion.…

Look at this energy level

diagram below. Can you link
to the larger picture?

Why does the pink light

appear closer to earth?

Animated Science
2022
Cosmic Rays – 1 proton?
NB: This looks complex
but all you need to
appreciate is a proton
with a high velocity
has enough energy to
decay into a shower
of particles which last
for varying times.

NB: The “Aurore

Australe” are mostly
caused by electrons

Animated Science
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron 2022
Carbon Dating
Here is an example of capture of a
neutron into the nucleus followed by
decay back again via a beta minus process.

9
14
6C
8
13
6C
7
12
6C
6
11
6C
5
10
6C
N 4
5 6 7 8 9
Animated Science
Z 2022
Decay Modes of Carbon TASK: Review the information, focus on the half - life

Z decay daughter
symbol (protons) Neutrons isotopic mass (u) half-life time mode isotope

Double Proton
8
C 6 2 8.03 2.0 x 10−21 s emission

β+ (60%)

9
C 6 3 9.0 126.5 ms p (23%)

α (17%)

10
C 6 4 10.0 19.29s β+
11
C 6 5 11.01 20.3 min β+
12
C 6 6 12 exactly Stable
13
C 6 7 13.003 Stable
14
C 6 8 14.003 5.7 x 103 years β−
15
C 6 9 15.01 2.5 s β−
Animated Science
2022
Decay Chains…. (Higher Challenge)

   


Task…
1) Decide whether each
decay in this decay chain 
is alpha or beta decay
and discuss the correct  
decay process on each
arrow in a pair. The first
one has been done for
you.  


2) Write at least 4 nuclear A decay chain is a sequence
equations for the chain, of nuclear equations that
so the changes to shows how unstable nuclei
protons, neutrons and
decay until a stable atom,
mass are clear.
usually lead, is reached.
Animated Science
2018
Decay Chains…

Animated Science
2022
Decay Chains…

Animated Science
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Decay Chains…

Animated Science
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The Neutrino & beta decay..

Neutrinos are thought to be the most numerous particle in the universe and are
thought to outnumber protons and neutrons by a factor of around 1,000,000,000
(there are 100 in every cubic cm of space).
It is thought that the neutrino has close to no mass and carry no charge which
leads to the difficult task of detecting them.
The first neutrinos were created at the time of the ‘Big Bang’ and are continually
being produced all the time through Beta radiation.
Like with all the other fundamental particles the neutrino has an anti-neutrino
and both interact very weakly with other particles (which is also why they are so
difficult to detect).
The main difference between the neutrino and the anti-neutrino is in fact its
direction of spin. (Not required for AS)

𝜈𝑒 𝜈
¯𝑒 Animated Science
2022
The Neutrino..

How where they first predicted?

Wolfgang Pauli saw that beta
radiation did not give off any fixed
energy value, he suggested the
Neutrino was emitted with the high
energy electron to keep the energy
level in Beta decay as shown below;

The gap between the energy of the beta

Total rest radiation and the constant energy value is the
energy amount of energy the neutrino must take up
to agree with the ‘conservation of energy’
laws.

These lines represent the energy levels each

beta radiation was giving out
Animated Science
2022
Gamma Decay...

Animated Science
2022
Where does it come from?
Strong Interaction

The strong force actually acts between quarks which u

are found inside nucleons causing the nucleons to u d
attract.

The carrier of this force is the gluon. (The particle is d

the pion) (passed between) u d

This force is so strong that it almost causes the

protons and neutrons within the nucleus to bind to
each other to form atoms, they sort of “hover” at an
equilibrium position.
Electrostatic
This is why the minute particles that possess this
force are called "gluon" meaning "glue" in Latin.
+

+
Animated Science
2022
Interactions combined.. Repulsive Force (N) Electrostatic

The overall graph is a combination of

electrostatic repulsion (charged quarks) 600
+
and the strong force (quarks)
400
repulsive
200
+
200 400
Typical equilibrium separation Separation/ fm
repulsive
Force (no units)

Force (no units)

Equilibrium separation 0.5fm
1 2 3 4 5
Separation/ fm
Electrostatic force dominates at
larger separations 1 2 3 4 5
Separation/ fm
strong nuclear force dominates u
10 4
at smaller separations drops off
u d
rapidly
attraction
attraction d
Key Very short range repulsion <0.5 fm
u d
Point Attraction between 0.5 and 3.0 fm Strong Interaction
Animated Science
2022
Main properties of the strong nuclear force are:
1. At typical nucleon separation (1.3 x 10-15m) it is a very
strong attractive force (104 N).

2. At much smaller separations between nucleons the force

is very powerfully repulsive. (0.5fm) 1 2 3 4 5

3. Beyond about 1.3 x 10-15m separation, the force quickly

dies off to zero.

4. Thus, the strong nuclear force is a very short-range force.

5. The much smaller Coulomb force between protons has a

much larger range and becomes the only significant force
between protons when their separation exceeds about 2.5
600
x 10-15m.
400
6. The strong nuclear force is not connected with charge.
Proton-proton, proton-neutron and neutron-neutron 200
forces are the same. (The force between protons,
however, must always be modified by the Coulomb 200 400
repulsion between them.) (Very important) Animated Science
2022
Key – “Interactions”
The overall graph is a combination of electrostatic repulsion
+
(charged quarks) and the strong force (quarks). You must be
able to explain each one in terms of fm and what happens! 600

400 +
200

200 400

1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5

u
104
u d

d
u d
Animated Science
2022
Interactions Exam Question…
Describe the interaction that is responsible for keeping protons and neutrons
together in a stable nucleus. You should include details of the properties of the
interaction in your answer. (3)

THREE FROM: (written in prose)

the strong interaction ✔
has short range OR mention range (less than 5 fm) ✔
attraction up to 5 fm ✔
repulsive (any distance below 1fm) ✔
is zero/negligible beyond 5 fm ✔
only affects hadrons/ baryons and mesons ✔
mediated by gluons/pions ✔

If wrong interaction identified then zero marks

If refer to strong interaction correctly then ignore any subsequent reference to

other interactions (3 max)
Animated Science
2022
Alpha Decay Exam Review Question… (6 marks) 5 mins

1. Describe an alpha particle in detail stating properties and behaviours? (4)

2. is an isotope of the element astatine (At) which decays into an isotope

bismuth (Bi) by emitting an . Write down the full nuclear equation (2)

• alpha particle is 2 protons & 2 neutrons.

• it is deflected strongly by a magnetic or electrical field.
• charge of +2 x 1.6 x 10-19C
• Detected due to its charge and ionising power in a bubble / cloud
chamber.
• Highly ionising so is stopped by paper.

215 211 4
85 𝐴 𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝐵 𝑖+ 𝛼 83 2
→ Animated Science
2022
What am I thinking of?
S

Animated Science
2022
 1.3/2.4 Photons (3.2.1.3) p8 2.5 hours I can.... (tick off)

1. Recall that every particle

Learning Objectives...
1. For every type of particle,
there is a corresponding
antiparticle.
2. Knowledge of particle
antiparticle pairs and a
comparison of their
properties. KF
3. The photon model of
electromagnetic radiation.
4. The energy of photons E=hf
5. The mechanisms of
annihilation of matter and
antimatter and pair
production.
Skills:
AO1 – Demonstration of knowledge of matter and antimatter.
AO2 – Apply knowledge and understanding of the factors affecting the energy of photons.
MS2.3 Substitute numerical values into algebraic equations to calculate energies of photons
using frequency and wavelength.
MS 2.2, 2.4 Solve algebraic equations to calculate energy of photons from frequency and
wavelength.
Assessment Practice....
has a corresponding
antiparticle.
PHYA1 January 2013 Q2
2. Contrast the properties of
PHYA1 May 2013 Q4(b)
particles and antiparticles.
3. Give examples of particle
antiparticle pairs.
4. Describe the photon
model of electromagnetic
ICT Links...
radiation.
5. Calculate the energy of
photons from wavelength
and frequency.
6. Describe the processes of
annihilation and pair
production.
Stretch and Challenge...
QED – Richard Feynman
How is annihilation of matter and antimatter
used in forming a PET scan?
I need further help with....
Animated Science
2022
 Mr D Powell
2022
Animated Science
2022

1.3 Photons (3.2.1.3) p8 1.5 hours – Part I

Learning Objectives...
Which is laser light & why?

1. For every type of particle, there is a

corresponding antiparticle.

2. Knowledge of particle antiparticle

pairs and a comparison of their
properties.

3. The photon model of electromagnetic

radiation.

4. The energy of photons E=hf

5. The mechanisms of annihilation of

matter and antimatter and pair
production.
Animated Science
2022
Question…. Can you explain what this means…
Can you explain what this
means….

Basic Harder
Animated Science
2022
Photons a General Description...
Under the photon theory of light, a photon is a
discrete bundle, packet or quantum of
electromagnetic or light energy.

Photons are always in motion and, in a vacuum,

have a constant speed of light to all observers of
c = 2.998 x 108 ms-1.

Photons have zero mass but carry both energyand momentum, which are also
related to the frequency f and wavelength  of the electromagnetic wave by

E = hf

They can be destroyed/created when radiation is absorbed/ emitted. They

can have particle-like interactions (i.e. collisions) with electrons and other
particles. (will look at this later).

EM radiation is a crossedElectric and Magnetic Field that moves through space

one pushing the other onwards.
Animated Science
2022
More on Photons...
E = hf
 The photon is an elementary particle,
despite the fact that it has no mass.

 It cannot decay on its own, although the

energy of the photon can transfer (or be
created) upon interaction with other
particles.

 Photons are electrically neutral and are

one of the rare particles that are identical
to their antiparticle, the antiphoton.
 = “nu” in Greek or “f” - freq
 Not needed for AS/A2 - Photons are spin-1
particles (making them bosons), which
means that their energy is polarised in a
direction. This feature is what allows for
polarisation of light. (i.e. TV aerials)
(which you need to know)

Animated Science
2022
 Excitation – by collision Ionisation – by collision
Reduced Ek
Reduced Ek

e- with Ek +
e- with Ek
+
gain Ek

gain Ek An electron collides with an atomic electron

An electron collides with an atomic
electron which gains some Ek moving out
an energy level (or several)
Excitation – by photon
with more energy than the ionisation energy.
Gas tubes and Ionising radiation are two
examples creating a positive ion.
De-excitation – by photon

E=hf
E=hf
+
+

A photon of the exact energy E = hf to A photon of the exact energy E = hf to match an

match an energy level is absorbed by an energy level is emitted by an atomic electron
atomic electron to move it out a level to move it down a level Animated Science
2022
Calculations & Maths

The known constants for these calculations are always;

h = 6.63 x10 Js
-34 350nm = 5.68 x 10-19J
590nm = 3.37 x 10-19J
c= 3.00 x 108 ms-1 700nm = 2.84 x 10-19J

Using our formulae of E = hf or since c = f  , f = c/ we could say for

neatness and simplicity that;

Try working out the energies for different frequencies of visible light to
test out your skills. You should get a range of answers i.e. 3 x 10-19J. Try
350nm, 590nm, 700nm

High Energy Low Energy

Animated Science
2022
Summary for Lasers (extra details)
E = hf

P = nhf

n = number of
photons arriving per
second

= hf

Two key bits

Animated Science
2022
Obi Wan or Obi Non!

• What a great use for a LASER

• Great idea for cutting metals, fighting and

generally chopping up any undesirables!

• However, what the Jedi Knights did not

reckon on is E = hf.

TASK

• Can you describe using a Quantum Physics

explanation why this is a load of “Hoki
Magic” and what would happen if light
could behave in this way?

Animated Science
2022
Power of a Photon

Animated Science
2022
Animated Science
2022
Laser Examples... (Wider reading) Laser Type
Wavelength
(nm)
A ruby laser is a solid-state laser and emits at a wavelength of Argon fluoride 193
(UV)
694 nm. Other lasing mediums can be selected based on the Krypton 248
desired emission wavelength (see table below), power fluoride (UV)
needed, and pulse duration. Some lasers are very powerful, Xenon chloride
(UV) 308
such as the CO2 laser, which can cut through steel.
Nitrogen (UV) 337
Argon (blue) 488
The reason that the CO2 laser is so dangerous is because it Argon (green) 514
Helium neon
emits laser light in the infrared and microwave region of the (green) 543
spectrum. Infrared radiation is heat, and this laser basically Helium neon
(red) 633
melts through whatever it is focused upon.
Rhodamine 6G
dye (tunable) 570-650
Other lasers, such as diode lasers, are very weak and are used Ruby (CrAlO3)
694
in today’s pocket laser pointers. These lasers typically emit a (red)
red beam of light that has a wavelength between 630 nm and Nd:Yag (NIR) 1064
Carbon dioxide
680 nm. (FIR) 10600

Lasers are utilised in industry and research to do many things,

including using intense laser light to excite other molecules to
observe what happens to them.
Animated Science
2022
Applications of Lasers II – Comms (Wider reading)

Animated Science
2022
Light Amplification Stimulated Emission Radiation – Extension Ideas

A laser is simply a mechanically constructed

tool which amplifies the process of
“stimulated emission”.

Emission (already covered) is when an

electron jumps down a quantum energy
level and emits light of energy E = hf.

Stimulated emission is when a second

photon hits an already excited atom
releasing two photons instead of one. That is
the original one and the one formed from
the transition of an energy level
NB. The time photons spend in
an excited state is usually
This means that if we can get a medium measured as an average of
excited enough or “pumped” where lots of many emissions.
atoms are excited or “population inversion”
then we can create a cascade effect and
produce a large number of photons in phase
Animated Science
2022
Stimulated Emission Summary – Extension Ideas

Excited atoms can give out

two photons at once in an
emission instead of the usual
one in “Stimulated
Emission”.

We can also work out the

wavelength of photons as we
know that that; c = 

NB: in this case “” is used to

represent frequency it is not
v = velocity You will only see
the version with f in your
exam!

NB: in this case “” is used to represent frequency it is not v = velocity You will only see the
version with f in your exam! Animated Science
2022
LASER – Extension Ideas

This picture shows you in

detail the process step by
step.

In this case we have a ruby

rod (694.3nm) which
produces pulses of light
(about 1ms)

We stimulate the atoms

until we have population
inversion and allow the
stimulated emission to
build, then when the power
reaches a certain point it
pulses out in phase as laser
light.

But what is this population

inversion? Animated Science
2022
Population Inversion – Extension Ideas

Atoms can have lots of different energy levels

which have different possible E =hf or transitions.
Some are easier to pump or produce a population
inversion than others.

It basically works on the time spent by an electron

on a level. If they constantly fall down a level all
the time then they will not be able to produce the
effect of stimulated emission.

A two level system cannot invert the population

without massive energy input. (pointless)

Better examples are three energy level systems

(ruby) or four level.

Helium gas is mixed with Neon at a ratio of 10:1.

The helium is pumped to the correct value and
transfers energy via collisions to the Neon. The
Neon then drops from a metastable state to lase.
Animated Science
2022
Helium Neon – Lab laser - Extension

Animated Science
2022
He Ne Summary - Extension

Learn this time idea

Learn where it comes

from

Learn this transition

from memory

Animated Science
2022
LASER 4 level system - Extension

We put energy into the atom and excite

an electron to pump it to Level 4

The energy gets quickly transferred to

the Neon metastable state. Population
Inversion!

All electrons move down at the same

time producing photons in phase E = hf
according to transition.

The key point you need to know for

your exam is that the “pumped” state is
short lived i.e. 10-8s but the metastable
state is much longer i.e. 10-3s so the
electrons stack up here and produce a
“population inversion”

Animated Science
2022
 Mr D Powell
2022
Animated Science
2022

1.4 Particles & Antiparticles (3.2.1.3) p10 Part II

Learning Objectives...

1. For every type of particle,

there is a corresponding
antiparticle.

2. Knowledge of particle
antiparticle pairs and a
comparison of their
properties.

3. The photon model of

electromagnetic radiation.

4. The energy of photons E=hf

5. The mechanisms of
annihilation of matter and
antimatter and pair
production.
Animated Science
2022
The Electron volt....
Task….
Charge on the electron is 1e = 1.6x10 -19
C (eq1)
Check p549 in
But we also know from electrical circuits; 1V = 1 JC -1
textbook and
think about what
So by multiplying equation 1 by 1V on each side we get: these values
mean?
1e x 1V = 1V x 1.6x10-19 C (eq2)

Then sub in 1JC-1 for the voltage part on the RHS of (eq2) gives us;

1eV = 1JC-1 x 1.6x10-19 C

This leaves us with definition: 1eV = 1.6x10-19 J

OR
1MeV = 1x 106 x 1eV
1MeV = 1.6x10-13 J

We can use this as smaller version of the joule (not a smaller version of the volt!)
Animated Science
2022
Circuit Modelling…. 1V = 1JC-1
1A = 1CS-1
Another way of thinking about it is saying that the
current carries the energy;

1A

1J 1J 1J 1J 1J
1J R 4V
1J 1J 1J 1J 1J 
1J 1J
1J 1J 1J 1J 1J

1J 1J 1J 1J C C
C
C C C C C C C

C = 1 Coulomb
of charge
1J = 1 Joule of
energy
As the Coulombs of Charge move they release their energy as = 1 Second of time
thermal and radiation (through the bulb) Animated Science
2022
Beta Decay/ part recap....

In this case a neutron

converts to a proton,
-, anti-

In this case a proton

converts to a neutron,
+, 

Animated Science
2022
Atoms Model Key
Neutron = n
Task: With a partner use the bricks to
Proton = p
make a simple Carbon 12 nucleus.
Electron = e
Next try and create all the isotope shown
here. Carbon A = Atomic Mass
Z = Proton/ Atomic
number
Explain to a partner what you did and how
this works?

Z decay daughter
symbol (protons) Neutrons isotopic mass (u) half-life time mode isotope

11
C 6 5 11.01 20.3 min β+
12
C 6 6 12 exactly Stable
13
C 6 7 13.003 Stable
14
C 6 8 14.003 5.7 x 103 years β−
Protons =
15
C 6 9 15.01 2.5 s β− Neutrons =
Electrons =
Animated Science
2022
Decay Modes of Carbon TASK: Review the information, focus on the “half life” Why is it shorter
at the top and bottom of the table?

symbol Z Neutrons isotopic mass (u) half-life time decay daughter

(protons) mode isotope

Double Proton
8
C 6 2 8.03 2.0(4) x 10−21 s emission

β+ (60%)

9
C 6 3 9.0 126.5 ms β+, p (23%)

β+, α (17%)

10
C 6 4 10.0 19.29s β+
11
C 6 5 11.01 20.3 min β+
12
C 6 6 12 exactly Stable
13
C 6 7 13.003 Stable
14
C 6 8 14.003 5.7 x 103 years β−
15
C 6 9 15.01 2.5 s β−
Animated Science
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isotopes_of_carbon 2022
Beta – Decay (Modelling) Key…
Neutron = n

Here is an example of capture of a neutron into the nucleus

Proton = p
followed by beta minus decay back again via a beta minus
process.
Electron = e-

A = Atomic Mass
Z = Proton/
Atomic number

? ?
9
14
6C
8
13
6C
7
12
6C
6
? ? 11
6C
5
10
6C
N 4
5 6 7 8 9
Z

Animated Science
2022
What is Antimatter?

Corresponding to most kinds of particles, there is an associated antiparticle

with the same mass and opposite electric charge.

The laws of nature are very nearly symmetrical with respect to particles and
antiparticles. For example, an antiproton and a positron can form an
antihydrogen atom, which has almost exactly the same properties as a
hydrogen atom.

Particle-antiparticle pairs can annihilate each other, producing photons; since

the charges of the particle and antiparticle are opposite, charge is conserved.
For example, the antielectrons produced in natural radioactive decay quickly
annihilate themselves with electrons, producing pairs of gamma rays.

Although particles and their antiparticles have opposite charges, electrically

neutral particles need not be identical to their antiparticles. The neutron, for
example, is made out of quarks, the antineutron from antiquarks, and they are
distinguishable from one another because neutrons and antineutrons
annihilate each other upon contact.

Animated Science
2022
Antimatter Summary – Useful Notes

For each particle of matter there is an equivalent antiparticle. A few particles

(e.g. photons) are their own antiparticles.

Antimatter consists of antiparticles. An antiparticle and a particle pair can be

produced from a photon of high-energy radiation, which ceases to exist as a
result.

An antiparticle has:

1. equal but opposite charge to its particle counterpart if its particle

counterpart is charged;

2. a mass (rest energy) equal to the mass of its particle counterpart.

3. equal but opposite spin to its particle counterpart (not req AS)

Animated Science
2022
Annihilation photon
In which a particle and a corresponding
antiparticle collide and annihilate each other, proton
antiproton
producing two photons of total momentum and
total energy equal to the initial momentum and
energy of the particle and antiparticle, including
their combined rest energy 2mc2.

We can use the proton as an example of this....

photon
If we take mass of a proton as approx. 1u = 1.66 x 10 -27kg. (or use exact)

Then we can say that the energy of the proton (at rest) and antiproton is found as;

E = mc2 = 1.67 x 10-27kg x (3.00 x 108 ms-1)2 = 1.503 x 10-10J

E = 1.503 x 10-10J/ 1.6 x 10-19 JeV-1 = 939MeV or 0.939GeV so Total = 1878MeV.

This energy will then be split between the two. The energy contained in the two photons
must be double this or 2mc2 = 2 x 939MeV photons in opposite directions

NB: properties such as charge, spin, and lepton or baryon number are equal but opposite
for particles and their antiparticles. Animated Science
2022
Pair Production / Creation positron e+ electron e-

In which a high-energy photon produces a end

particle and its antiparticle near the nucleus.
OR extremely rare two gamma rays produce
the pair.

This can only occur if the photon energy start

E = hf ….. E = ……. 2mc2
Gamma ray  Gamma ray 
where m is the mass of the particle, with rest
energy mc2 for each particle of the pair positron e+
produced.
nucleus
More generally, particles are always created in
particle–antiparticle pairs. The masses of
particles and their antiparticles are identical. Gamma ray 

All other properties, such as charge, spin,

lepton or baryon number, areequalbut electron e-
opposite in sign.
start end Animated Science
2022
Pair Production positron e+
In which a high-energy photon produces a particle nucleus
and its antiparticle. This can only occur if the
photon energy hf is greater than or equal to 2mc2,
where m is the mass of the particle produced, with
rest energy mc2 for each particle of the pair. Gamma ray 
electron e-
Using the diagram above as an example if we take mass of an electron to be
1u/1840 = 9.11 x 10-31kg

Then we can say that the energy to produce an electron (at rest) is found as;

E = mc2 = 9.11 x 10-31kg x (3.00 x 108 ms-1)2= 8.199 x 10-14J

E= 8.199 x 10-14J / 1.6 x 10-19 JeV-1 = 0.51MeV

The energy contained in the particle and antiparticle must be double this or

2mc2 = 2x 0.51MeV= 1.02MeV.

This energy will then be split between the particles. Hence the gamma ray
photon must have at least this energy to produce these particles. 2mc2 Animated Science
2022
Electron- Positron Annihilation
Conserved quantities in electron–positron annihilation NB: Assume equal collision
speeds
Simplify: e– e+
assume head-on
collision with Conserved quantities in electron–positron annihilation

equal speeds
  Simplify:
assume head-on
e– e+

collision with
equal speeds
 

Energy is conserved

Energy is conserved total energy before

= kinetic energy of particles
= total energy after

+ rest energy of particles

energy after is
minimum value of energy energy of gamma

total energy before = total energy after before is rest energy:

= 2 mc2 = 2  0.511 MeV
photons
= 2  0.511 MeV

= kinetic energy of particles Momentum is conserved

total linear momentum before = total linear momentum after

+ rest energy of particles e–

same mass; equal and

e+ 

energy E,


energy after is opposite velocities momentum p = E/c

photons identical,

minimum value of energy energy of gamma total momentum before = 0

momenta opposite
total momentum = 0

before is rest energy: photons Charge is conserved

total charge before = total charge after

= 2 mc2 = 2  0.511 MeV = 2  0.511 MeV

charge charge
(–e) + (+e) = 0 0 + 0 = 0

Momentum is conserved Mass proton 1u = 1.66 x 10-27kg.

total linear momentum before = total linear momentum after

e– e+   Mass of electron = (1/1840)u

same mass; equal and energy E,
opposite velocities momentum p = E/c
photons identical,
What is the rest energy in Joules
momenta opposite and MeV for an electron?
total momentum before = 0 total momentum = 0

Charge is conserved
E = 8.12 x 10-14J
total charge before = total charge after E = 0.507MeV
charge charge
(–e) + (+e) = 0 0+0=0 Animated Science
2022
Carl Anderson – Evidence of Positron?

Key Ideas…

• Positron enters and is slowed by lead plate. Then curvature increases.

• Beta particle would curve in the other direction.

Lead plate
Positron
e+ arrives

Electron
e- arrives

e+ loses energy
Magnetic Field into the in lead plate,
page makes particle follow slows, curves
a curved path more. Animated Science
2022
 https://www.youtube.co
6.11P There is a force on a charged particle when it moves in a m/watch?v=-jAOCHFsLeA
magnetic field as long as its motion is not parallel to the field.

Charged particles act as if they are a flow of

current in a magnetic field (+ to – ) and field N-
>S into the page. If they enter the field at 90
degrees the field lines you get maximum effect.
Of they flow with the field lines you get 0 effect. S
B

= field out of the page N

e-

2+

F x = magnetic field into


the page (you see the
feathers!)
B

I e-
Alpha & Protons – reminder?
Gamma
This picture shows the tracks produced Alpha
by an alpha particle and a proton in a
strong magnetic field.
Proton
Which track was made by the proton
and which by the alpha particle?

Well think about charge to mass Positron Electron

ratios…

Alpha - > +2/4 = +0.5

Proton -> +1

Electron -> - 1/ (1/1840) = -1840

Key Point
If equal charges move at the same speed through the same magnetic field if one of them
has more mass it will have a larger radius of curvature. Because it has a greater mass its
inertia is greater and thus its direction is 'more difficult' to change. This is why the electron
moves more than the proton. We should consider the charge to mass ratio to see the
overall effect of both charge and mass. Animated Science
2022
Pair Production.
Electron
Scattered atomic
electron

A more
energetic pair
Gamma ray
photons (no track)

Positron

positron e+
The bubble chamber shows two electron positron pairs
nucleus
created in a magnetic field (into of the page)

The gamma photon does not leave a track as it is

uncharged. Gamma ray 

The spirals are caused by magnetic field.

electron e-
The minimum energy required for this to take place is
0.55MeV x 2 Animated Science
2022
Proton–antiproton annihilation
Here an antiproton (coming in from the bottom left) strikes a proton. Mutual annihilation leads to
four pairs of + and – These curve in opposite directions in the magnetic field.

The antiproton is being deflected slightly to the right. So can you identify the + and – particle tracks.
The magnetic field is directed “out of the page” (NB anti-proton has a negative charge). The + and –
particle tracks are red and green respectively (the – will deflect the same way as the anti-proton)

Pi minus
Pi plus

Pi plus

Pi plus

Pi minus
neutrino

Pi plus
Mu plus
antiproton
Animated Science
2022
Proton Strike
Neg
Pos
The proton enters from the bottom and
strikes a proton in the liquid hydrogen
bubble chamber.

The collision produces a spray of negative

and positive particles as well as an unseen
neutral lambda particle.

The unseen lambda decays into a further

pair of positive and negative particles slightly
further up from the collision point.
Neutral
What produces the spiral track shown at the Particle 
bottom of the picture?

Electron

Proton

Animated Science
2022
Bubble Chambers.. (Background reading)

The development of bubble chambers in the 1950s allowed particle physicists to

‘see’ particle interactions more easily and more rapidly than earlier work which
used cloud chambers or photographic emulsions. (alpha)

Many bubble chambers consisted of liquid hydrogen which is held at its boiling
point. When the pressure is reduced the liquid becomes ‘superheated’ (a strange
concept at –253 °C!) and bubbles will form on any ions in the liquid.

The passage of a charged particle through the chamber produces ions in the
liquid and the bubbles formed on the ions trace its track.

These chambers were used as the targets for beams of particles – with the
interactions triggered when the incoming particles collide with (or pass close to) a
hydrogen nucleus (which is simply a proton).

Before they became obsolete with the advent of electronic detectors and massive
computing power, bubble chambers provided much of the evidence which led to
the Standard Model of particle physics.
Animated Science
2022
 e

e-


-

Track shows a possible muon

decay into two hidden neutrinos,
and an electron. Can also happen
with + you can tell if you apply a
magnetic field.
Animated Science
2022
Can you explain this idea?

Animated Science
2022
Rest Energy Exam Review Question (5 marks / 5 mins + Ext Time)

1. State the name of the antiparticle of the positron (1)

2. Describe what happens when a positron and its antiparticle meet (2)

3. Calculate the minimum amount of energy in J, released as radiation

energy when a particle of rest energy 0.51MeV meets it corresponding
antiparticle? (2)

1. Electron

2. They annihilate into energy of the order of that originally contained in

the two particles. (i.e. the energy out = energy in and shared)

3.
0.51MeV x 2 = 1.02MeV (1eV = 1.6x10-19J)
E = 1.02 x 106eV x 1.6 x 10-19JeV-1
= 1.6 x 10-13J (2 sig fig)
Animated Science
2022
Using antimatter to fight cancer! – Wider reading…
One of the worst things you can hear in life is the phrase “you have cancer”. Decades ago, depending on the type of cancer this
may have been a death sentence…
However now due to improving diagnostic and treatment strategies, our management of many types of cancer is life prolonging
and curative in many cases.

Our advancements in cancer diagnostics sometimes evolve at a dizzying pace…

I’ve spoken previously on this newsletter about the use of AI to help with identifying someone’s risk of pancreatic cancer, but a
tool we already have that doesn’t use AI is still the most sci-fi tool we have…

The PET scan (positron emission tomography) ; it literally uses anti-matter to help us detect cancer.
You might have heard of antimatter – a potentially dangerous substance that releases vast amounts of energy when it combines
with matter. But how do we use it to detect cancer?

In the case of PET scans, as the name implies, we use positrons. These are essentially the antimatter equivalent of electrons.
They have the same mass as an electron but are positively charged. This now gets increasingly smarter and mindblowing… to
release these positrons we have some manmade isotopes (chemical elements which have been manipulated to make them
unstable).

These unstable isotopes continue to decay over a short period of time and emit positrons.
One isotope commonly used in PET scans is fluorine-18 – specifically added to a tracer molecule to create fluorodeoxyglucose
(FDG).

FDG is a glucose analogue that is absorbed by cells in the body but not metabolised by them. Cancer cells love to absorb FDG so
doctors can look for places where there are high concentrations of it.
A build up of FDG means more decay of the fluorine-18 and more positrons being emitted. The positrons, when they meet an
electron, annihilate each other and the result is gamma-rays with specific energies which can be detected using computers.

Over a 10-20 minute scan, a million positrons are emitted and we can use this to determine cancer clusters!
Understandably this is expensive because these require specialised tools and to use these tools, hospitals need to have the
equipment to create radioactive isotopes.. so some hospitals actually have a particle accelerator on site!
Animated Science
2022
 1.5 Particle Interactions (3.2.1.4) p13 I can.... (tick off)

1. Name the four

Learning Objectives...
KF
1. The four fundamental
interactions.
2. The fundamental
interactions in terms of
exchange particles.
3. The weak interaction
4. Diagrams to represent the
fundamental interactions.
Assessment Practice....
fundamental interactions.
2. Describe the fundamental
PHYA1 June 2014 Q2 (b)
interactions in terms of
PHYA1 June 2013 Q2(a) (b)
exchange particles.
3. Identify the virtual photon
as the exchange particle in
ICT Links... the electromagnetic
interaction.
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/fo 4. Distinguish between -
rces/funfor.html
and + decay identifying
them both as examples of
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3P-FGw5
KUeo the weak interaction.
5. Analyse electron capture
and electron positron
Stretch and Challenge... collisions as examples of
the weak interaction and
identify the appropriate
Can you apply the vertex rules to interactions and exchange particle (W+ or
explain it to another student (clearly) W-) in each case.
6. Draw simple diagrams to
represent interactions.

Skills:
AO1: Demonstration of knowledge of the fundamental interactions. I need further help with....
AO2: Apply knowledge and understanding of conservation laws in particle
interactions.
AO2: Apply knowledge and understanding in the importance of conservation laws
when constructing Feynman diagrams. Animated Science
2022
 Mr D Powell
2022
Animated Science
2022

1.5 Particle Interactions (3.2.1.4) p13

Learning Objectives...

1. What are the four fundamental

interactions.

2. Know the fundamental

interactions in terms of exchange
particles.

3. Understand the idea of a weak

interaction What is the carrier for each of these?

4. Draw Feynman diagrams to a) Photon

represent the fundamental b) Graviton
interactions. c) W or Z Boson
d) Gluon
Animated Science
2022
How do matter particles interact?
There are four fundamental interactions
between particles

When thinking about it the problem is that

things interact without touching!

How do two magnets "feel" each other's

presence and attract or repel accordingly? But
how does the sun attract the earth?

We know the answers to these questions are

"magnetism" and "gravity" but what are these
forces?

At a fundamental level, a force isn't just

something that happens to particles.

It is a thing which is passed between two

particles.

For example Photons are responsible for the

electromagnetic one! Animated Science
2022
Want some proof…

 These two players throw a ball

to each other and thus slowly
move apart as they absorb the
energy.

 If you look that them without

the ball in the picture it looks
strange!

 We know that the ball carries

the force.

Animated Science
2022
Gauge Bosons Defined (gluon, graviton, photon, photon)
The Strong Interaction The Electromagnetic Force - The
– Acts between Electromagnetic force acts between
nucleons i.e. protons charged particles and is transmitted by
and neutron (quarks) the mass-less particle THE PHOTON.
and is transmitted by
the Gauge Boson called
the GLUON between
quarks OR Pions
between the baryons
themselves.
The Weak Interaction –
Acts over an even
Gravity – The gauge shorter range than the
boson that transmits the strong interaction. It
gravitational force is the acts on both Leptons
GRAVITON. This has (i.e e-) and Hadrons i.e.
never as of yet been (p and n) and is
discovered and is transmitted by 3 bosons
predicted to have zero called; W+, W- (and Z
mass. Bosons – not required
for A2)
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 Comparison of Gauge Bosons/ Exchange Particle...
Rest
Interactio Virtual / Exchange What is Relative Range/ Relative
Energy / Everyday?
n/Force Particle acts upon Strength m Charge
GeV

0 (gluon)
Nucleons 0 What holds
Gluons between quarks +
Strong (Hadrons) mesons and
1 10-15
Nuclear nucleons
p, n etc.. 1/0/-1 together
Pions between Baryons 0.139 (pion)

Charged Charged
Electroma particles
Virtual Photon infinite 0 0 particle
gnetic
p, e+, e- interactions

Z0 Rad decay
10-18
Weak Tend not to ask All W = 81 particles
W+ W– 10-6 (less than +1/-1/ 0
Nuclear questions for A- particles Z0 = 93 change
proton)
level nature

Graviton Any
Gravitatio On the cusp
particles 6 x 10-39 infinite 0 0
nal (not yet discovered) of discovery
with mass

B: Graviton & Zo not required in AS Animated Science

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Fundamental Forces Summary....

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Particle Adventure... (Extended Ideas and Project)

Use this website https://particleadventure.org/ and the

information present….

I would like you all to have a good research and read of

the topics and then decide on one topic and do some
further research which is of an A-level OR above
standard

Create a 2 page A4 handout which you will need copy

for everyone in the lesson when we discuss it. Avoid
copy and paste a you have to talk us through the
document in the lesson.

It should include a Harvard reference and come from

several sources, not just this site.

So that nobody else can copy you, please add a message

onto the TEAM chat, under my web link so everyone
knows what you are going to research. First come first
served digitally.
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Feynman Diagrams
+ Decay
The eminent Physicist Richard Feynman
invented a graphical method to represent
interactions of particles.

The only thing that really means anything is

the time (upwards) and direction of the
arrows.

At each vertex there must be equal charge

into and out of the point of interaction.
- Decay
The angles are not significant.

In this case a neutron turns into a proton

as a quark has a change of flavour.

The exchange particle is a W- boson and

results in an electron antineutrino and
electron.
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Focus on Vertex Rules…
- Decay
Each vertex will either cancel or carry
through +1 or -1 charge by the direction of
the W-

Consider each vertex on its own…

L.H.S …. 0 = +1 -1

R.H.S …. -1 = 0 -1

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Reference… At each vertex there must
Electron be equal charge into and
- Decay Capture out of the point of
interaction.

Consider each vertex on

its own.

Each vertex will either

+ Decay cancel, carry through +1
or -1 charge
Low energy!
When a lepton is released
an anti-lepton is required
Proton-Electron to balance lepton number
Neutrino-neutron
collision Collision
All diagrams relate to a p
or n interacting with
lepton

Direction of the boson is

Antineutrino- important to work out the
proton collisions vertex rules!
High energy! Animated Science
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Beta+ decay ….Quarks
We can think about Beta+ decay in
Proton terms of a change of quark flavour ….
Made up of two ‘up’ quarks
and a ‘down’ quark.
OR

u
B=++ 1
u d
d ¿−
3

Neutron 2
u ¿
Made up of 2 ‘down’ 3
u quarks and an ‘up’ quark.
d

B=++
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Decay.....
1. In these decay we start from the bottom.
Vertex Rule
 Decay
-
(in) 2. The n or p turns into its opposite.
0=+1-1
3. As this occurs, inside the original p or n the
& W- or W+ is produced.
(out)
-1=0-1 4. The W- or W+ very quickly and in a very
short distance (10-18m) decays into...

5. Particle-Antiparticle pair of electron &

antineutrino.

6. Some diagrams show an antiparticle with an

Vertex Rule arrow the other way!
(in)
+1=0+1

&
(out)
+1=0+1
+ Decay
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Capture / Collision.....
1. Inner shell electron & proton
from nucleus interact.
Electron Capture Vertex Rule
(Low Energy) (1st) 2. Electron absorbed into the
+1 = 0+1 proton as W+ is exchanged.
&
(2nd) 3. Proton changes to a neutron (in
+1 = 0 –(-1) nucleus).

4. An electron flavour neutrino is

Capture is emitted.
Low energy! positive!
1. A high energy proton-electron
collision takes place (i.e. Cern)
Vertex Rule
Proton-Electron Collision
(High Energy)
(1st) 2. Electron absorbed into the
+1 = -(-1) proton as W- is exchanged.
&
(2nd) 3. Proton changes to a neutron (in
nucleus)
-(-1) = 0 –(-1)
4. An electron flavour neutrino is
emitted.
High energy! Animated Science
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Reference…
• Two particles collide and
Vertex Rule exchange a W+ or W- boson.
(1st)
+1 = 0+1 • The proton or neutron is
& reversed (quarks change
(2nd) inside)
+1 = +1-(0)
Antineutrino- • The neutrino or antineutrino is
proton collisions converted into an electron or
positron.

• Direction of the boson is

Neutrino-neutron important to work out the
collision vertex rules!

Vertex Rule
(1st)
0 = +1-1
&
(2nd)
-1 = -1-(0) Animated Science
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Focus on the W+/W-
- Decay
W+ and W- are each others particle and antiparticle
When we think of a decay what we actually mean
is…

This helps when thinking about charge being conserved

The second reaction taking place a very short time and
distance after the initial change. 0.001fm
W particles have a mass and charge.

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Confusing they are the same?

Each of these diagrams shows the same decay but is a

different way to show it.

Can you see how they are different?

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Mini – Learning Check X/10 (6 mins + ext
time)
1. On a blank sheet of A4 paper split into two halves and copy these
diagrams.
2. Fill in the missing particles
3. Clearly explain the reasons why you chose the particles you did and
why they are correct

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Mini – Learning Check – Peer Assess using the grid!

Descriptor Marks

particles clearly marked have to be exactly as on

these images with charge or bars. (arrows not 6
important)

Reference to conservation of charge and vertex

1
rules
+ Decay
Reference to conservation of lepton number. 1

Reference to conservation of baryon number. 1

Reference to conservation of mass, energy and

1
momentum overall

II think/reply.....
think/reply.....
- Decay

SA Animated Science
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The MeV and E=mc2

We can now use this definition to make things on a particle level easier to deal
with: 1eV = 1.6x10-19 J

We can say that 5MeV can be converted to joules by……..

1.6 x 10-19J x 5 x 106 = 8 x 10-13J

This can be taken a step further by saying that since E = mc2 we can also
represent mass as E/c2.

If we take mass of a proton 1u = 1.67 x 10-27kg. Then we can say that the energy
of proton (at rest) is found as;

E = mc2 = 1.67 x 10-27kg x (3.00 x 108 ms-1)2= 1.503 x 10-10J

E= 1.503 x 10-10J/ 1.6 x 10-19 JeV-1 = 939MeV or 0.939GeV

NB: we should also remember that: J = kgm2s-2 Animated Science

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Feynman Diagram Models
p n - Decay

+ Decay
e -
e +

Electron
Capture
W- W+
Neutrino-neutron

e 
collision

Antineutrino-
proton collisions
- +
Proton-Electron
Collision

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2.3 Feynman Diagrams Exam Question
Which diagram represents the process of beta-plus decay?

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Unit 1 Chapter 1 Worked Exam Questions

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1)

-1
particle 0
particle
anti-particle +1

B
1. They have opposite charge / spin thus in a magnetic field will curve in different
directions.
2. They are losing kinetic energy as if an orbiting satellite which starts to graze the
atmosphere of earth.
3. The beta particles passing through the lead plate slowed down and curved one
direction this one curved the other way.
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2)

P = 90
N = 139
E = 90

X = 90
Y = 227, 228, 230, 231, 234 (any value 212 -252)
Z = 90

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3)

A) 18, 19
B) 2x 1.6 x 10-19C = +3.2 x 10-19C
C) neutron, electron
D) p + n = 37 x 1.67x10-27 = 6.179x10-26

electrons = 16 x 9.11x-31 = 1.4576x10-29

(100 x e)/(p + n) = 0.02%

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4)

A) P = 14, N = 14, E = 14 (2 marks)

B)
i) same e and p, different number of neutrons often decay to
become more stable (2 marks)
ii) 137-55 = 82 ( 1 mark)
iii) 92 x +1.6 x10-19C / 236 x 1.67x-27 = +37.3 x 106C/kg (2 marks)
iv) X = 236 – 137 – 4 = 95 (1 mark)
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5)

225
88

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6)

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 Mr D Powell
2022
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7)

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7) Answer

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8)

A)

i) Electron
ii) They annihilate into energy of the order of that originally contained in
the two particles.

B) 0.51MeV x 2 = 1.02MeV
1.02 x 106eV x 1.6 x 10-19J/eV = 1.63 x 10-13J (1eV = 1.6x10-19J)

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9)

A)

i) The particles annihilate to pure energy

ii) Energy is conserved from total energy before. So the energy of the
collision is part kinetic and part rest mass i.e. E=mc2 for each particle.

B) There could be more particles produced, more of the same particle,

particles of different energies

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10)

W+ boson or force carrier but the force is called the “weak interaction” is
the method of transfer. This particle transfers the electromagnetic force,
energy and momentum.

Process is called “electron capture”. Diagram show shown the p turns to

neutron, and e- to a ve . The diagram below shows an example. Where an
atom experiences “electron capture”.

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Animated Science
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11)

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12)

Describe what happens in pair production and

give one example of this process. 3 marks…

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Book Answers

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Extension Ideas…

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